iKTAi: ...  •'  :  oro, 


/ 


"FULL  OP  SERVICEABLE  INFORMATION. 


Handbook  of  Conversation: 

Its  Faults  and  Its  Graces. 

COMPEISING 

l.—  Dr.  Peabody'8  Lecture.        a.— Mr.  Trench's  L,ecture. 
3.— Mr.  Parry  Gwiim's  "A  Word  to  tlie  Wise;  or. 
Hints  on  the  Current  Improjirieties  of  Ex- 
pression in  Writing  and  Speaking." 
4.— Mistakes    and   Improprie- 
ties   in    Speaking    and 
Writing    Cor- 
rected. 

COMPILED  BY 

ANDREW  P.  PEABODY,  D.D.,  L.L.D., 

Late  of  Harvard  Uuiversity. 
Cloth,  50  Oenti. 


"  A  book  which  will  be  of  Incalculable  value  to  the  young  man  or 
woman  who  will  carefully  note  and  follow  out  its  numerous  and  valu- 
able sufo-estions  It  is  worth  owning,  and  ought  to  be  studied  by 
many  who  heedlessly  misuse  their  mother  tongua."—  Boston  Beacon. 

"This  little  manual  contains  a  great  variety  of  valuable  matter  for 
the  instruction  of  those  who  would  improve  their  style  in  conversa- 
tion It  is  In  fact  one  of  the  very  best  and  clearest  handbooks  of  Its 
kind  that  we  have  seen."—  The  Day,  Baltimore. 

"  It  Is  a  useful  handbook  on  the  proprieties  and  common  errors  of 

English  speech."—  The  Churchman. 

"  The  book  Is  full  of  serviceable  Information,  and  can  be  advanta- 
geously read  and  kept  for  reference  by  every  one  who  desires  to  con- 
verse and  to  write  properly  and  gracefully  "—  Paper  World. 

•Here  Is  a  neat  pocket-vomme,  which  every  person  should  navo 
I'or  ready  reference  For  the  young  It  Is  of  especial  value,  and  to  in» 
•Id  it  is  of  great  Interest."—  Vox  Popult. 


THE  ElffHT  WOED  IN  THE  EldHT  PLAOB. 


CAMPBELL'S 

Handbook  of  English  Synonyms 

WITH  AN  APPENDIX, 

SHOWINQ 

The  Correct  Uses  of  Prepositions. 

160  pages.    Neat  cloth  bindiag,  60  eta 

This  compact  little  volume  contains  about  40,000  synonymao* 
words,  printed  in  clear,  distinct  type. 

It  18  a  work  which  will  substantially  aid  speakers,  writers, 
teachers  and  students  —  in  fact  all  who  would  gain  a  more  copious 
vocabulary  and  increase  their  power  of  expression. 

It  include"  the  really  important  matter  of  the  more  bulky  vol- 
umes which  are  commonly  sold  for  two  dollars  or  more. 

A  great  choice  of  words  is  here  placed  at  the  service  of  tho 
writer  and  the  speaker. 

The  Appendix,  containing  "  Prepositions  Compared  and  Dis- 
criminated," and  "A  List  showing  what  Prepositions  to  use  after 
certain  Words,"  is  a  trustworthy  guide  in  a  great  nimiber  of  cases 
of  doubtfnl  usage.  A  writer's  knowledge  of  English  idiom  and 
his  style  Are  best  s^own  by  his  ose  of  these  little  hinges  of  thg 


HandbooK  of  Punctuation. 

Pnnctnatlon  ani  Otiier  TypoirapMcal  Matters. 

for  the  use  of  Printers,  Authors,  Teachers,  and  Scholars, 
By  MARSHALL  T.  BIGELOW,  Corrector  at  the  Uni- 
versity rrefs,  Cambridge.  Small  4to.  CLOTH,  S6 
CENTS. 

Lenox  Library,  New  York,  Aug.  19, 1881. 
Dear  Mb.  Bigitlow,  —  I  sent  for  your  "Punctuation  and  other 
Typographical  Matters  "  (having  long  groaned  over  bad  pointing  in 
authors  and  printers),  and  was  glad  to  find  an  excellent  manual 
which  will  contribute  to  the  comfort  of  many.  I  cordially  recom. 
mend  it  to  all  authors,  printers,  and  men  of  letters. 

Faithfully  yours, 
Allibone's  Dictionary  of  Authors.    '  I.  Austin  A-Llibonb. 


"  Mr.  Bigelow's  book  is  a  practical  treatment  of  the  subject,  and 
enlarges  the  reading  public's  obl5  Rations  to  him."  —  Atlantic  Monthly. 

"It  is  intended  for  the  use  of  authors  and  teachers,  while  business 
men  who  have  occasion  to  print  circulars,  advertisements,  etc.,  can 
hardly  afford  to  be  without  a  copy  of  it  for  reference."  —  Schenectady 
Daily  Union. 

Mistakes  in  Writiii£  Englisli,  aui  How  to  AvoW  Tlem. 

For  the  Use  of  all  who  Teach,  Write,  or  Speak  the  Lan- 
guage. By  MAMSHALL  T.  BIGELOW,  a^Uhor  of 
*'  Punctuation  and  other  Typographical  Matters.'* 
CLOTH,  60  CENTS. 

"  This  is  an  admirable  little  work ;  the  more  admirable  for  the  uao 
of  busy  people,  because  it  is  little,  since  it  is  also  clear  and  compre- 
hensive. The  errors  pointed  out  are  those  to  which  nearly  all  writers 
are  liable.  .  .  .  We  commend  it  as  the  most  convenient  little  manual 
of  which  we  have  knowledge." —  Christian  Herald. 

"  This  is  a  valuable  little  volume.  It  is  not  a  grammar,  with  rules 
and  definitions ;  but  it  takes  up  words  and  parts  of  speech,  and  shows, 
generally  by  example,  their  correct  use.  It  is  arranged  syetematl" 
«aMy,  and  is  adapted  to  the  use  of  the  home  and  the  school."  —  The 
Cur'^ent. 

"  The  matter  is  well  arranged,  and  the  points  upon  which  'nstruo 
tion  is  desired  can  be  readily  found."  —  Christian  Union. 

"This  is  a  useful  book.  A  careful  study  of  the  several  chaptere 
trould  be  of  great  advantage  to  all  who  nave  to  <to  mucli  oriiUaf 
•p«ak*nf(  cr  writing.  "—  Gospel  Banner, 


PUNCTUATION, 


,.x  ill  .H  Olliux:..i-  SCliuu- 
OTHER  TYPOGRAPHICAL   MATTERS, 


FOR   THE   USE   OF 

PRINTERS,    AUTHORS,    TEACHERS,   AND 
SCHOLARS. 


MARSHALL    T.    BIGELOW, 

CORRECTOR    AT    THE    UNIVERSITY    PRESS. 


FIFTEENTH    EDITION. 


r^n 


BOSTON: 

LEE   AND   SHEPARD,    PUBLISHERS, 
10  Milk  Street, 

1894. 


Copyright,  1881, 
By  Makshalc  T.  Bigelow. 


UNIVERSITY    PRESS: 
JOHN    WILSON   AND    SoN,  CAMBRIDGE 


PE 
PEE FACE 


THIS  work  was  originally  intended  to  lay  down 
plain  and  practical  rules  for  compositors  and 
proof-readers,  which  should  be  brief  enough  to  be 
readily  kept  in  mind,  and  simple  enough  to  be  at 
once  comprehended.  But  I  hope  that  it  may  also 
be  of  use  to  authors  and  teachers,  as  well  as  to  pu- 
pils in  colleges  and  schools,  in  which  the  practice 
of  composition  is  now  so  general  a  requirement. 
Business  men,  likewise,  wiio  have  occasion  to  print 
circulars  and  advertisements,  may  find  a  knowledge 
of  the  subjects  here  treated  to  be  very -useful. 

The  tendency  of  the  present  day  is  decidedly  to 
a  less  stiff  and  formal  punctuation  than  that  laid 
down  in  either  Murray's  or  Goold  Brown's  Gram- 
mar, and  no  one  now  would  punctuate  so  closely  as 
their  rules  require.  It  has  become  a  recognized 
principle,  that  Punctuation  is  as  much  a  matter 
of  taste  and  judgment  as  of  rigid  rule ;  and  while 
certain  rules  are  positive,  and  to  be  followed  ab- 
solutely, much  is  to  be  left  to  the  discretion  of 
the  author. 

The  treatise  of  Wilson  is  by  far  the  best  work 
treating  fully  on  this  subject ;  but  it  is  altogether 
too  large  for  the  purpose  for  which  this  little  vol- 
ume is  designed.     I  have  used  it  freely  for  exam- 


iv  PREFACE. 

pies,  and  in  fact  have  taken  these  wherever  I  could 
hnd  them,  whether  in  Murray,  Goold  Brown,  or  the 
works  of  other  writers  on  the  subject. 

The  subject  of  division  of  syllables  as  well  as 
that  of  compound  words  has  been  carefully  con- 
sidered, and  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  give 
definite  practical  rules,  which  shall  avoid  the  many 
inconsistencies  and  errors  of  our  two  principal  Dic- 
tionaries. Printers  and  school-book  makers  usu- 
ally follow  the  Dictionary  which  they  take  as  their 
standard,  without  any  regard  to  consistency  or  the 
true  principles  of  syllabication. 

General  rules  are  also  given  in  relation  to  print- 
ing and  accenting  the  Classical  and  Modern  lan- 
guages. These,  of  course,  are  not  for  scholars,  but 
for  compositors,  to  whom  a  knowledge  of  these 
rules  may  be  of  great  use,  and  save  much  useless 
and  vexatious  labor  in  correcting. 

An  experience  at  the  University  Press,  as  a  prac- 
tical printer,  of  nearly  fifty  years,  —  more  than 
thirty  of  which  have  been  spent  in  proof-reading, 
—  and  the  advantage  of  the  instruction  of  Mr. 
Charles  Folsom  and  of  Mr.  George  Nichols  while 
they  were  connected  with  the  Press,  as  well  as 
that  of  reading  the  proofs  of  the  original  works  of 
nearly  all  our  prominent  New  England  authors,  in- 
duce me  to  hope  that  my  book-  may  be  of  value, 
especially  to  the  class  for  whom  it  is  primarily 
designed. 

M.  T.  BIGELOW, 

Cambridge,  May  21,  1881. 


CONTENTS. 


Page 
A  Corrected  Proof-Sheet 6 

Explanation  of  Proof  Marks 7 

Remarks  for  Authors 7 


Chaptee 

I.    The  Comma 9 

II.  The  Semicolon,  Colon,  and  Period  .       .        .  .    22 

ni.  The  Interrogation  and  Exclamation  Points    .  28 

IV.  The  Dash,  Parentheses,  and  Brackets  .        .  .32 

V.  The  Apostrophe.  —  Possessive  Case      ...  36 

_   VI.  Of  Paragraphs  and  Quotations        .        .        .  .38 

VII.  Capitals  and  Italics 43 

VIII.    Citations  and  Abbreviations 49 

Abbreviations  used  in  Printing  ....         52 

IX.    The  Hyphen.  —  Compound  Words.  —  Syllabication    59 

X.    Rules  of  Orthogr^vphy 71 

List  of  Words  variously  spelled        ...         77 

XI.    Accents,    Divisions,   etc.,  in   the  Classical  and 

Modern  Languages 87 

Xn.    Remarks   on   Composition.  —  Technical  Terms.  — 

Sizes  of  Type 97 

XIII.    Dimensions  of  Books  and  Paper  ....       109 
INDEX Ill 


A    CORRECTED    PROOF-SHEET. 


HAMLET  S    ADVICE    TO    THE    PLATERS. 


&^.  caAa.  Speak  the  speech,  I  pray  you,  as  I  pronounced  it  to  you, 

/     trippingly  on  the  tongu^but,  if  you  moutli/it,  as  many 

of  our  players  do,  I  had  as  lief  the  7V)wn  crier  spoke  my 

it         lines.    Nor,  donot  saw  the  air  too  much  with  your  band, 

0)         thus:  but  use  all  gentU  ;  for,  in  the  very  torent,  tempest, 

and,  as  I  may  say,  whirlwind  of  your  passion,  you  must 

znc^  veae^   acquire  a  temperance  that  may  give  it  smoothenss.    i 

qA^o  Otean,,  '  o/it  offends  me  to  the  soul  to  hear  a  periwig-pated 
robustiouH  fellow  tear  'to  tatters^  a  passion^,  —  to  very 
a.  e.  rags,  —  to  •wni-the  ears  of  the  groundlings,  wWo,  for  the 
'  ^  most  part,  are  capable  of  nothing|but  inevitable  dumb 
show  ani  noisej/  I  would  have  such  a  fellow  whipped 
for  oerdoing/ermagant ;  it  out-Herods  Herod.  Pray  you 
avoid  it.  JBe  not  too  tame,  nietlier,  but  let  your  own 
discretion  be  your  tutor ;  suit  the  action  to  the  word,  with 


/.c./. 

t 
Ofia/. 


X  /  o 

V 


# 


this  special  observylice,  that  you  o'erstep  not  thr^iodesty 
of  5«ature  ;  for  any  thing  so  overdone  is  from  the  purpose 
of  playing,  whose  end,  both  at  the  fi«^  and  now,  was 
rjiT'is,  to  hold,  as  'twere,  the  mVor  up  to  i(ature/to 
— j'J^^'Yirtue  her  own  feature,  Si^rn  her  own  pittwo,  and 
--^  ag®  ^n"*  ^"'^y  ^^  •s_/'''®  s,^/  time,  ^^ ^  his  form 

Shakespeare. 


•/ 

iu 
a 


ti7taae 


^^ 


..^ 


^ 


REMARKS  FOR  AUTHORS.  7 

EXPLANATION  OF  PROOF  MARKS. 

or  o     Dele,  take  away. 
6)       is  a  mark  showing  an  inverted  letter, 
-^      over  ae  and  oe  indicates  that  they  are  to  be  printed  cs,  ce. 
—      directs  less  space  between  words. 
3      directs  that  all  space  be  taken  out. 
}f       indicates  that  a  space  is  needed  where  the  a  is  put. 
X       indicates  a  broken  letter. 
_|_      indicates  a  space  which  stands  up. 
Dots  placed  under  words  or  letters  erased  indicate 

that  they  are  to  be  restored.     Stet  is  placed  in  the 

mai'gin. 
[        indicates  that  a  word  or  line  is  to  be  moved  towards 

the  face  of  the  bracket,  whichever  way  turned. 

IT       denotes  that  a  new  paragi'aph  is  to  be  made. 
tr.      Transpose  words  or  letters.     But  it  is  better  to  rewrite 
letters  than  to  use  the  tr. 

I.  c.  ( lower  case)  directs  a  capital  word  or  letter  to  be  made  small. 

Qy.  or  ?     Query,  as   to   spelling  or  use  of  language,   and  the 
questioned  change  written  in  the  margin. 

One  line  drawn  under  letters  or  words  indicates  that  they  should 
be  in  Italics  ;  two,  small  capitals  ;  three,  CAPITALS. 


REMARKS   FOR  AUTHORS. 

Authors  in  correcting  proofs,  especially  where  they 
are  sent  to  a  distance,  by  mail  or  otherwise,  shoxild 
not  use  a  lead  pencil,  as  the  marks  are  very  likely  to 
become  illegible.  Either  ink  or  a  crayon  pencil  ought 
to  be  used. 


8  REMARKS  FOR  AUTHORS. 

When  a  query  is  made  on  the  proof-sheet,  if  the  au- 
thor desires  the  correction  to  be  made,  he  should  erase 
the  ?  or  Qy.  If  he  does  not  wish  the  change  made, 
the  correction  and  query  should  both  be  distinctly 
marked  through.  Much  trouble  is  occasioned  proof- 
readers by  neglecting  this,  as  they  are  at  a  loss  what 
to  do,  and  as  queries  are  often  in  relation  to  discrepan- 
cies in  the  manuscript,  or  other  matters,  which  they  can- 
not settle.  Marks  should  never  he  ruhhed  out  with  an 
eraser,  as  the  proof-reader  may  forget  corrections  that 
he  made  in  the  author's  proof,  and  again  make  the 
same  corrections,  which  the  author  may  not  desire. 
When  duplicate  proofs  are  sent  to  an  author,  the  one 
marked  by  the  proof-reader  should  always  be  returned ; 
as  otherwise  typographical  defects  might  appear,  which 
can  be  avoided. 

By  careful  attention  to  the  foregoing  scheme  of  proof 
marks  in  making  corrections,  the  author  may  be  assured 
that  they  will  be  understood  ;  and  there  is  no  occasion 
for  taking  up  the  time  of  the  proprietor,  proof-reader, 
or  compositor  in  going  over  the  marks  with  him.  If 
there  are  many  corrections,  however,  the  author  should 
see  a  revise. 


PUNCTUATION. 


C  H  A  P  T  E  E     I. 

THE  COMMA. 

COMMAS  are  properly  used,  not  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  where  pauses  are  to  be  made  in  read- 
ing, but  to  present  to  the  eye  the  proper  grammatical 
construction  of  the  sentence,  so  that  one  reading  a  new 
book  or  a  newspaper  cannot  fail  to  perceive  the  mean- 
ing at  first  sight.  They  are  used  for  the  separation  of 
clauses,  to  mark  parentheses,  and  to  separate  words 
where  several  are  used  in  the  same  construction,  —  in 
short,  wherever  they  help  to  show  the  exact  meaning 
of  the  writer. 

Almost  the  whole  science  of  punctuation  consists  in 
the  proper  use  of  the  comma  in  subordinate  clauses,  so 
as  to  show  the  precise  meaning  of  the  sentence.  A  full 
comprehension  of  the  meaning  of  the  writer  is  neces- 
sary to  this,  and  without  such  a  comprehension  it  is 
impossible  to  punctuate  correctly. 

The  following  rules  show  where  commas  must  be 
used,  and  also  where  their  use  is  a  matter  of  taste  and 
judgment,  rather  than  of  absolute  law.  In  many  cases, 
where  they  would  be  used  according  to  rule,  they  may 
be  omitted  in  parenthetical  or  other  clauses  in  long  or 
involved  sentences,  where  tliey  might  confuse  the  reader 


10  THE  COMMA. 

instead  of  helping  him.  The  responsibility  for  a  bun- 
gling or  confused  sentence,  however,  must  rest  with  its 
writer  :  it  is  impossible  for  a  proof-reader  to  remedy  it 
by  any  use  of  punctuation  marks. 

Rule  I. 

1.  A  simple  sentence  does  not  usually  admit  of  any 
pause  except  at  its  close. 

2.  But  where  a  sentence  is  so  constructed  that  the 
subject  ends  with  a  verb  and  the  predicate  also  begins 
with  a  verb,  a  comma  may  be  used. 

3.  A  sentence  so  long  that  the  reader  might  find  it 
difficult  to  separate  the  subject  from  the  predicate,  also 
admits  of  the  insertion  of  a  comma  between  them. 

1. 

I  remember  with  gratitude  his  goodness  to  me. 
His  work  is  in  many  respects  very  imperfect. 

2. 

All  things  that  are,  are  with  more  spirit  chased  than  enjoyed. 

Whatever  is,  is  right. 

What  is  foreordained  to  be,  will  be. 

3. 

To  allow  the  slave-ships  of  a  confederation  formed  for  the  ex- 
tension of  slavery  to  come  and  go  free  and  unexamined  between 
America  and  the  African  coast,  would  be  to  renounce  even  the 
pretence  of  attempting  to  protect  Africa  against  the  man-stealer. 

Those  Presbyterian  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  who 
had  many  years  before  been  expelled  by  the  army,  returned  to 
their  seats. 

Rule  II. 

1.  Two  words  of  the  same  part  of  speech  and  in  the 
same  construction,  or  two  short  phrases,  when  con- 
nected by  a  conjunction,  should  not  be  separated  by 
a  comma. 


THE  COMMA.  •  11 

2.  But  where  more  than  two  words  occur  in  such 
construction,  commas  should  be  put  between  all  the 
words,  whether  connected  by  conjunctions  or  not.-^ 

3.  Where  two  or  more  such  words  are  used  without 
a  conjunction,  or  where  the  same  word  is  repeated,  a 
comma  should  always  be  used  between  them.  If  the 
two  or  more  words  unconnected  by  a  conjunction  or 
conjunctions  are  nouns  in  the  nominative  case,  or  have 
the  same  relation  to  what  follows  in  the  sentence,  a 
comma  should  also  be  used  after  the  last  word ;  ex- 
cept that  where  two  or  more  adjectives  qualify  a  noun, 
or  where  the  portion  of  the  sentence  governed  consists 
of  a  single  word  or  a  very  short  clause,  the  comma  after 
the  last  word  of  the  series  should  be  omitted. 

4.  If,  however,  either  of  two  such  words  has  a  quali- 
fying word  or  clause  which  does  not  also  qualify  the 
other,  they  should  usually  be  separated  by  a  comma. 
Also  where  the  conjunction  is  decidedly  disjunctive,  or 
the  second  word  is  explanatory  of  the  first,  or  a  defini- 
tion of  it ;  or  where  words  are  contrasted,  or  antitheti- 
cal, or  emphatically  distinguished. 

1. 

Reason  and  vu-tue  answer  one  great  aim. 

Plain  and  honest  truth  wants  no  artificial  covering. 

Death  had  lost  its  terrors  and  pleasure  its  charms. 

2. 

The  discourse  was  beautifully,  elegantly,  and  forcibly  de- 
livered. 

The  spirit  of  the  Almighty  is  within,  around,  above  us. 


1  Some  writers  omit  the  comma  in  cases  where  the  conjunction 
is  used.  But  as  the  conjunction  is  generally  employed  in  such  cases 
for  emphasis,  commas  ought  to  be  used;  although  where  the  words 
are  very  closely  connected,  or  where  they  constitute  a  clause  in  the 
midst  of  a  long  sentence,  they  may  be  omitted. 


12  -  •  THE  COMMA. 

Little,  Brown,  &  Co.,  or  Little,  Brown,  and  Company. 
The  man  professed  neither  to  eat,  nor  drink,  nor  sleep. 
The  husband,  wife,  and  children  suffered  extremely. 
And,  feeling  all  along  the  garden  wall, 
Lest  he  should  swoon,  and  tumble,  and  be  found, 
Crept  to  the  gate,  and  opened  it,  and  closed. 
Who  to  the  enraptured  heart,  and  ear,  and  eye 
Teach  beauty,  virtue,  truth,  and  love,  and  melody. 
From  generation  to  generation,  man,  and  beast,  and  house, 
and  laud  have  gone  ou  in  succession  here,  replacing,  following, 
rene\ving,  repairing  and  being  repaired,  demanding  and  getting 
more  support,  etc. 

Saying  with  a  loud  voice.  Worthy  is  the  Lamb  that  was  slain 
to  receive  power,  and  riches,  and  wisdom,  and  strength,  and 
honor,  and  glory,  and  blessing.  And  every  creature  which  is  in 
heaven,  and  on  the  earth,  and  under  the  earth,  and  such  as  are 
in  the  sea,  and  all  that  are  in  them,  heard  I  saying,  Blessing,  and 
honor,  and  glory,  and  power,  be  unto  him  that  sitteth  upon  the 
throne,  and  unto  the  Lamb.for  ever  and  ever.  — Rev.  v.  12,  13. 

3. 

Their  search  extends  along,  around  the  path. 

We  are  fearfully,  wonderfully  made. 

Punish,  guide,  instruct  the  boy. 

Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto  you. 

The  colleges,  the  clergy,  the  lawyers,  were  against  me. 

Your  ends,  objects,  seem  to  me  important.  I  see,  I  feel,  the 
great  evils  of  our  present  social  state.  —  JF.  E.  Channing. 

The  world  that  is  outward,  material,  is  the  shadow  of  that 
which  is  spiritual.  — Ibid. 

The  more  of  common  objects,  of  common  tastes,  of  common 
sources,  they  possess,  the  more  tender  and  beneficent  will  be 
their  union. — Ibid. 

4. 

He  could  write,  and  cipher  too. 

Tn  such  case  it  is  clear  that  he  is  entitled  to  take  the  annual 
crops,  and  wood  for  fuel. 

He,  and  he  only,  is  worthy  of  our  supreme  affections. 
The  vain  are  easily  obliged,  and  easily  disobliged. 
Liberal,  not  lavish,  is  kind  Nature's  hand. 


THE  COMMA.  13 

Strong  proofs,  not  a  loud  voice,  produce  conviction. 
Though  black,  yet  comely  ;  and  though  rash,  benign. 
Learning  is  the  ally,  not  the  adversary,  of  genius. 
We  came  to  a  large  opening,  or  inlet. 

Though  deep,  yet  clear  ;  though  gentle,  yet  not  dull  ; 
Strong,  without  rage  ;  without  o'ertiowing,  full. 
Who  builds  a  church  to  God,  and  not  to  fame. 
Will  never  mark  the  marble  with  his  name. 

The  following  are  examples  of  nouns  in  juxtaposition, 
but  in  a  different  construction,  which  show  clearly  the 
importance  of  putting  a  comma  before  the  conjunction 
when  it  is  used  before  the  last  word  of  a  series  in  the 
same  construction. 

By  simple  trutli,  staleness  and  tameness  are  not  meant,  for 
there  should  always  be  richness  of  thought.  —  JF.  E.  Clumning. 

To  prove  its  location,  reputation  and  tradition,  recitals  in 
ancient  deeds,  and  the  evidence  afforded  by  ancient  maps  and 
plans,  are  admissible.  — Mass.  Reports. 

Among  them  are  the  following  mines,  viz.  the  Central,  Cop- 
per Falls,  and  Calumet  and  Hecla. 

Rule  III. 

Words  joined  in  pairs  by  conjunctions,  or  other  par- 
ticles, should  be  separated  into  pairs  by  commas. 

Sink  or  swim,  live  or  die,  survive  or  perish,  I  give  my  hand 
and  my  heart  to  this  vote. 

Interest  and  ambition,  honor  and  shame,  friendship  and  en- 
mity, gratitude  and  revenge,  are  the  prime  movers  in  public 
transactions. 

Let  elevation  without  turgidness,  parity  without  primness, 
pathos  without  whining,  characterize  our  style. 

Nothing  is  more  wise  or  more  admirable  in  action  than  to  be 
resolute  and  yet  calm,  earnest  and  yet  self-possessed,  decided 
and  yet  modest. 

But  whether  ingenious  or  dull,  learned  or  ignorant,  clownish 
or  polite,  every  innocent  man,  without  exception,  has  as  good  a 
right  to  liberty  as  to  life. 


14  THE  COMMA. 

EULE   IV. 

Where,  of  two  or  more  adjectives  in  a  series,  one 
is  qualiiied  by  the  one  or  more  preceding,  the  comma 
should  be  omitted  before  it. 

She  is  a  virtuous  and  excellent  young  woman. 
He  was  a  brave,  honest,  and  good  old  man. 
She  had  dark  blue  eyes  and  beautiful  light  bl-own  hair. 
He  then  proceeded  to  draw  on  a  pair  of  old,  shabby,  and  very 
dirty  white  kid  gloves. 

EuLE  V. 

1.  "Words  used  in  apposition  should  be  separated 
from  each  other  by  a  comma,  and  also  from  the  part 
of  the  sentence  which  follows. 

2.  But  where  one   of  the  words  is  used   merely  as 

a  general  title  or  appellation,  the   comma  should   be 

omitted,  as  also  where  a  pronoun  is  added  tautologi- 

cally  for  emphasis. 

1. 

Now  I,  Paul,  myself  beseech  you  by  the  meekness  and  gen- 
tleness of  Christ. 

But  in  the  first  year  of  Cyrus,  the  king  of  Babylon,  the  same 
King  Cyrus  made  a  decree  to  build  this  house  of  God. 

And  set  up  over  his  head  his  accusation  written.  This  is  Je- 
sus, the  King  of  the  Jews. 

Newton,  the  gi-eat  mathematician,  was  very  modest. 

The  Venetian  Senate  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  Em- 
peror, Charles  V.,  and  the  Pope,  Paul  III. 

William  was  slain,  leaving  one  child,  Alice. 

And  he,  their  prince,  shall  rank  among  my  peers. 

2. 

The  poet  Milton  wrote  excellent  prose  and  better  poetry. 

The  Emperor  Augustus  was  a  patron  of  the  fine  arts. 

On  the  death  of  the  Empress  Anne,  her  niece  assumed  the 
government,  as  guardian  of  her  son  John. 

The  river  Thames.  —  The  brook  Kidron.  —  I  myself.  —  He 
himself.  —  Ye  men  of  Athens. 


THE  COMMA.  15 

EULE  VI. 
All  vocative  words  or  expressions  shoiild  be  separated 
by  commas  from  the  other  parts  of  the  sentence. 

Mr.  President,  my  object  is  peace. 
Yes,  sir,  I  will  go  there  with  you. 
Your  Grace  of  York,  set  forward  ! 
It  touches  you,  my  lord,  as  much  as  me. 
It  is  to  you,  good  people,  that  I  speak. 

Come,  pensive  nun,  devout  and  pure, 

Sober,  steadfast,  and  demure. 

EULE   VII. 

1.  Adverbs  and  short  phrases,  when  they  break  the 
connection  between  closely  related  parts  of  a  sentence, 
should  be  separated  by  commas  from  the  other  portions 
of  the  sentence. 

2.  When  they  readily  coalesce  with  the  whole  sen- 
tence, however,  the  commas  should  be  omitted. 

Among  the  more  common  words  and  phrases  so  used 
are  the  following  :  — 

too  however  perhaps  first  now 

then        therefore  again  finally       moreover 

also         indeed  further  lastly        namely 

in  short         for  instance      in  truth         in  like  manner 
you  know     as  it  were         no  doubt       as  it  appears 

But  this  list  may  be  almost  indefinitely  extended. 

1. 

Eoland's  death,  too,  is  supernatural. 

So,  then,  these  are  the  two  virtues  of  building  :  first,  the 
signs  of  man's  own  good  work ;  and,  secondly,  the  expression 
of  man's  delight  in  work  better  than  his  own. 

As  an  orator,  perhaps,  he  was  not  magnetic  or  inspiring. 

There  is,  however,  a  hmit  at  which  forbearance  ceases  to  be  a 
virtue. 


16  THE  COMMA. 

I  had  grown  to  my  desk,  as  it  were,  and  the  work  had  entered 
Viy  soul. 

True  eloquence,  indeed,  does  not  consist  in  mere  speech. 
Our  civilization,  therefore,  is  not  an  unmixed  good. 
Punctuality  is,  no  doubt,  a  quality  of  high  importance. 

2. 

True  eloquence  does  not  indeed  consist  in  mere  speech. 
Our  civilization  is  therefore  not  an  unmixed  good. 
Patience,  I  say  ;  your  mind  perhaps  may  change. 
Here  also  is  the  distinction  between  faith  and  mere  assent. 
Now  I  know  in  part,  but  then  shall  I  know  even  as  also  I  am 
known. 

Rule  VIIL 

All  clauses,  whether  independent,  parenthetical,  abso- 
lute, or  whatever  grammarians  may  choose  to  call  them, 
should  generally  be  separated  by  a  comma  or  commas 
from  the  other  parts  of  the  sentence ;  although  where 
any  such  clause  is  closely  united  with  the  sentence,  or 
is  very  short,  it  may  be  unnecessary. 

United,  we  stand  ;  divided,  we  fall. 

The  prince,  his  father  being  dead,  succeeded. 

His  father  dying,  he  succeeded  to  the  estate. 

To  confess  the  truth,  I  was  much  in  fault. 

Vices,  like  shadows,  towards  the  evening  of  life  grow  great 
and  monstrous. 

As  the  hart  panteth  after  the  water  brooks,  so  panteth  my 
soul  after  thee. 

Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him. 

Where  the  bee  sucks,  there  suck  1. 

The  little  that  is  known,  and  the  circumstance  that  little  is 
known,  must  be  considered  as  honorable  to  him. 

Any  departure  fiom  the  route  named  in  the  policy  to  a  port 
or  place  not  named,  and  any  delay  in  prosecuting  the  voyage, 
M'ithout  necessity  or  just  cause,  or  any  delay  at  a  port  named  in 
the  policy  for  the  prosecution  of  business  not  connected  with  the 
business  of  the  voyage,  or  any  unreasonable  delay  at  such  port  in 
y)rosecuting  tlie  business  of  the  voyage,  is  a  deviation.  —  Mass. 
Reports. 


THE  COMMA.  17 

Rule  IX. 

1.  A  relative  clause  limiting  or  restricting  its  antece- 
dent should  not  be  separated  from  it  by  a  comma. 

2.  But  the  comma  must  be  used  where  the  clause  is 
explauatory  of  the  antecedent,  or  parenthetical,  or  where 
it  expresses  another  idea. 

1. 
Every  one  must  love  a  boy  who  is  attentive  and  docile. 
For  the  things  which  are  seen  are  temporal,  but  the  things 
which  are  not  seen  are  eternal. 

He  preaches  sublimely  who  lives  a  sober,  just,  and  holy  life. 
There  is  no  charm  in  the  female  sex  which  can  supply  the 
place  of  vhtue. 

2. 

Cherish  true  patriotism,  which  has  its  root  in  benevolence. 

His  stories,  which  made  everybody  laugh,  were  often  made  to 
order. 

They  passed  the  cup  to  the  stranger,  who  drank  heartily. 

He  did  not  come,  which  I  greatly  regret. 

The  younger,  who  was  yet  a  boy,  had  nothing  striking  in  his 
appearance. 

Rule  X. 

1.  A  direct  quotation,  maxim,  or  similar  expression, 
should  be  separated  from  the  preceding  part  of  the  sen- 
tence by  a  comma.  Where  a  quotation  consists  of  more 
than  one  sentence,  a  colon  is  generally  used. 

2.  Clauses  like  "It  is  said,"  "I  answer,"  "He 
contended,"  etc.,  introducing  .several  propositions  or 
quotations,  each  preceded  by  the  word  that^  should 
have  a  comma  before  tlie  first  thai,  especially  if  the 
sentence  is  so  constructed  as  to  require  a  comma  after 
the  that ;  ^  but  if  a  single  proposition  or  quotation  only 
is  given,  no  comma  is  necessary. 

^  See  first  example  under  Semicolon,  3,  page  23. 


18  THE  COMMA. 

3.  A  single  proposition  of  a  like  kind,  introduced  by 
a  noun  like  maxim,  fact,  rule,  law,  or  like  word,  should 
have  a  comma  before  the  that.  Also  where  the  verb  to 
be  is  used  after  the  noun,  a  c»mma  is  preferable  before 
the  that ;  as,  "The  reason  is,"  "The  facts  are,"  "The 
rule  was,"  "  Our  opinion  is,"  etc. 

1. 

God  said,  Let  there  be  hglit ;  and  there  was  light. 
It  is  a  good  maxim,  Take  care  of  the  pennies,  and  the  pounds 
will  take  care  of  themselves. 


They  have  forgotten,  that  in  England  not  one  shiUing  of  paper 
money  is  received  but  of  choice,  that  the  whole  has  had  its  origin 
in  cash  actually  deposited,  and  that  it  is  convertible  at  pleasure 
into  cash  again. 

Philosophers  assert,  that  Nature  is  unlimited  in  her  opera- 
tions, that  she  has  inexhaustible  treasures  in  reserve,  that'  knowl- 
edge will  alwa3's  be  progressive,  and  that  all  future  generations 
will  continue  to  make  discoveries  of  which,  we  have  not  the 
slightest  idea.^ 

3. 

Dante's  knowledge  of  him  is  owing  to  the  fact,  that  the  pro- 
fane Ijatin  literature  had  been  revived  in  the  twelfth  century. 

It  is  the  law  of  nature,  that  the  mother  shall  protect  and 
cherish  her  offspring. 

Our  opinion  is,  that  as  to  this  part  of  the  fund  the  trust  should 
be  terminated,  and  the  amount  paid  over  to  the  claimant. 

Rule  XL 

1.  In  the  address  and  the  conclusion  of  a  letter  or 
any  other  document,  as  well  as  the  date,  commas  should 
be  used  between  all  the  different  items. 

2.  A   comma  should  always  be  used  between  the 

1  In  both  of  the  above  examples,  if  only  the  first  clause  after  that 
were  expressed,  it  will  be  seen  that  no  comma  would  be  admissible. 


THE  COMMA.  19 

month  and  year  in  writing  dates,  whether  the  day  of 
the  month  is  given  or  not.-' 

3.  Where  a  date  is  inserted  in  a  sentence  without  a 
preposition  or  other  word  to  connect  it  with  the  preced- 
ing clause,  a  comma  shoidd  be  used  before  it.  But  it  is 
better  to  insert  a  connecting  word,  -unless  many  dates 
occur  in  close  proximity. 

1. 

Hon.  Geo.  F.  Hoar,  "Washington,  D.  C. 
Rev.  Joseph  W.  Smith,  Auburn,  Cayuga  Co.,  New  York. 
I  am,   sir,  very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant,  George 
Washington. 

Ward  Room,  Franklin  Schoolhouse,  Waltham  Street,  Boston. 
Lotos  Club,  147  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York,  September  9,  1880. 

2. 

This  event  took  place  in  June,  1880. 

The  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  was  fought  on  June  17,  1775. 

Independence  was  declared  on  the  4th  of  July,  1776. 

3. 

The  death  of  President  Wadsworth  occurred,  March  16th, 
1737,  and  was  lamented  with  more  than  ordinary  demonstra- 
tions of  sorrow. 

Washington  was  bom,  Feb.  22,  1732,  and  died,  Dec.  14,  1799. 
He  took  command  of  the  American  army,  July  3,  1775 ;  forced 
the  British  to  evacuate  Boston,  March  17,  1776;  was  defeated  at 
Brandyvvine,  Sept.  11,  1777,  and  at  Germantown,  Oct.  4,  1777  ; 
defeated  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown,  Oct.  19,  1781.  He  was  inau- 
gurated President,  April  30,  1789,  and  retired  to  private  life, 
March  4,  1797. 

1  Dates  are  much  better  in  figures  tlian  written  out,  in  ordinary 
printing,  although  in  legal  documents  they  are  written  out  to  pre- 
vent mistake,  or  fraud  by  an  alteration  of  a  figure.  It  is  better  to 
spell  out  the  month,  instead  of  abbreviating,  either  in  narrative 
matter  or  in  the  date  of  a  letter;  as,  the  24th  of  December,  1880 ; 
or,  December  24,  1880  ;  instead  of  Dec.  24, 1880.  But  where  dates 
are  frequent,  in  statistical  or  other  matter,  they  may  be  abbreviated 
to  save  space.     Write  2d,  3d,  not  2nd,  Srd. 


20  THE  COMMA. 

Rule  XII. 

A  comma  should  be  used  to  indicate  an  ellipsis  of  the 
verb  or  noun  where  the  meaning  Avould  not  otherwise 
be  clear,  though  it  may  be  dispensed  with  where  the 
sense  is  obvious. 

A  wise  man  seeks  to  shine  in  himself  ;  a  fool,  in  others. 

He  rides  on  a  flaming  car,  and  grasps  in  his  left  hand  a  quiver 
full  of  arrows  ;  in  his  right,  a  fiery  bow. 

Price  of  admission,  50  cents. 

Some  mute,  inglorious  Milton  here  may  rest, 
Some  Cromwell,  guiltless  of  his  country's  blood. 

Omission  of  the  Comma. 

1.  The  comma  may  be  omitted,  after  a  period,  in 
many  cases  where  the  foregoing  rules  would  require  it, 
as  in  giving  authorities  between  volume  and  j^age,  or 
other  subdivisions;^  also  after  i.  e.,  e.g.,  viz.,  etc.,  and 
similar  abbreviations,  where  an  example  or  explanatory 
clause  is  introduced.  Also,  as  before  stated,  commas 
may  be  omitted,  in  some  cases  where  they  would  be 
used  according  to  the  foregoing  rules,  in  long  sentences, 
when  the  sense  can  be  made  clearer  by  their  omission. 

2.  If  the  comma  is  necessary  after  a  period  to  distin- 
guish a  parenthesis,  however,  it  should  be  inserted. 

3.  Where  hut,  and,  or  other  connecting  particle,  oc- 
curs after  a  period  or  semicolon  immediately  before  a 
parenthetical  clause,  it  is  better  to  omit  the  comma  be- 
fore the  parenthesis. 

1. 
Shaw,  C.  J.  delivered  the  opinion  of  the  court. 
John  C.  Church,  Jr.  was  yesterday  elected  mayor  of  this  city, 

1  For  further  examples  on  this  point,  see  Chapter  VIII.,  on  Cita- 
tions and  Abbreviations. 


THE  COMMA.  21 

The  keystones,  etc.  of  the  choir,  and  t]ie  compartments  be- 
tween the  ribs  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  choir,  were  re-decorated 
in  color. 

The  names  of  countries,  kingdoms,  states,  cities,  etc.  are  dif- 
ferently written  in  different  languages.  —  /.  E.  IVorcester. 

Vol.  I.  p.  145,  not  Vol.  I.,  p.  Ii5. 

2. 

All  other  objects,  such  as  furniture,  vessels  and  utensils,  tex- 
tiles, etc.,  are  to  be  eliminated. 

3. 

But  though  they  had  been  victorious  in  the  land  engagements, 
they  were  so  little  decisive  as  to  lead  to  no  important  result. 

Athens  seemed  now  restored,  if  not  to  power,  at  least  to  inde- 
pendence ;  and  if  she  reflected  but  the  shadow  of  her  former 
greatness,  she  was  at  least  raised  up  from  the  depths  of  her 
degradation. 

Other  Uses  of  the  Comma. 

Commas  are  used  to  point  oflf  figures  into  periods  of 
three  each,  denoting  thousands,  millions,  etc.,  for  con- 
venience in  reading. 

Commas  inverted  are  used  for  the  beginning  of  a 
quotation  of  any  kind.  For  their  use  for  this  pur- 
pose, see  the  chapter  on  "  Paragraphs  and  Quotations," 
page  39. 

Inverted  commas  are  also  iised,  in  pairs,  in  tabular 
VFork,  for  do.  or  ditto,  instead  of  repeating  in  a  number 
of  instances  the  same  words  or  figures.  Where  used  in 
place  of  several  words  or  a  sentence,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  put  commas  under  every  word,  but  they  should  be 
in  pairs  a  short  distance  apart,  without  regard  to  the 
separate  words. 


22  THE  SEMICOLON. 


CHAPTEE     II. 

THE  SEMICOLON,    COLON,   AND  PERIOD. 

I.    The  Semicolon. 

1.  The  semicolon  is  used  to  separate  clauses  from 
each  other,  where  the  clauses  themselves  are  suhdi- 
vided  by  commas  aud  might  not  otherwise  be  readily 
distinguished. 

2.  The  semicolon  may  also  be  used  between  short 
complete  sentences,  where  the  period  would  indicate 
more  of  a  pause  than  the  connection  between  the  sen- 
tences renders  necessary. 

3.  The  semicolon  is  used  between  expressions  in  a 
series  which  have  a  common  dependence  on,  or  relation 
with,  other  words  or  expressions  at  the  beginning  or 
end  of  a  sentence.  Where  the  expressions  all  alike 
directly  govern  a  clause  at  the  end  of  a  sentence,  a 
dash  should  be  put  after  the  last  clause  of  the  series 
before  the  governed  clause. 

4.  The  semicolon  should  be  used  before  as,  viz., 
e.  g.,  i.  e.,  or  the  full  words  of  these  abbreviations,  and 
similar  words,  where  examples,  or  a  specification  of 
particulars  or  subjects,  follow.  But  where  such  ex- 
amples are  introduced  parenthetically  in  a  sentence,  a 
comma  only  is  needed. 

1. 

He  was  courteous,  not  cringing,  to  superiors;  affable,  not 
familiar,  to  equals ;  and  kind,  but  not  condescending  or  super- 
cilious, to  inferiors. 


THE  SEMICOLON.  23 


"We  do  not  want  precepts  so  much  as  patterns  ;  an  example  is 
the  softest  and  least  invidious  way  of  commanding. 

It  is  a  beautiful  thing  to  model  a  statue  and  give  it  life  ;  to 
mould  an  intelligence  and  instil  truth  therein  is  still  more  beau- 
tiful. 

There  are  on  every  subject  a  few  leading  and  fixed  ideas  ; 
their  tracks  may  be  traced  by  one's  own  genius  as  well  as  by 
reading. 

3. 

The  intention  of  the  testatrix  was,  that,  after  the  payment  of 
the  debts  and  the  legacies,  the  residue  of  the  estate  should  be 
divided  into  three  parts  for  the  benefit  of  her  three  children 
respectively  ;  that,  out  of  the  part  designed  for  each  child,  five 
hundred  dollars  should  be  paid  to  each  of  his  or  her  children  ; 
and  that  the  balance  only  of  such  thii-d  part  was  devised  to  such 
child. 

He  has  combined  with  others  to  subject  us  to  a  jurisdiction 
foreign  to  our  constitution,  and  unacknowledged  by  our  laws  ; 
giving  his  assent  to  their  acts  of  pretended  legislation  :  for  quar- 
tering large  bodies  of  armed  troops  among  us  ;  for  protecting 
them,  by  a  mock  trial,  from  punishment  for  any  murders  which 
they  should  commit  on  the  inhabitants  of  these  States  ;  for  cut- 
ting off  our  trade  with  all  parts  of  the  world  ;  for  imposing  taxes 
on  us  without  our  consent  ;  for  depriving  us,  in  many  cases,  of 
the  benefits  of  trial  by  jury  ;  for  transporting  us  beyond  seas  to 
be  tried  for  pretended  offences  ;  for  abolishing  the  free  system  of 
English  laws  in  a  neighboring  province,  establishing  therein  an 
arbitrary  government,  and  enlarging  its  boundaries,  so  as  to  ren- 
der it  at  once  an  example  and  fit  instrument  for  introducing  the 
same  absolute  rule  into  these  Colonies  ;  for  taking  away  our  char- 
ters, abolishing  our  most  valuable  laws,  and  altering  fundamen- 
tally the  forms  of  our  governments  ;  for  suspending  our  own 
legislatures,  and  declaring  themselves  invested  with  power  to 
legislate  for  us  in  all  cases  whatsoever.  —  Decl.  of  Independence. 

The  ground  strewed  with  the  dead  and  the  dying  ;  the  impet- 
uous charge  ;  the  steady  and  successful  repulse  ;  the  loud  call  to 
repeated  assault ;  the  summoning  of  all  that  is  manly  to  repeated 
resistance  ;  a  thousand  bosoms  freely  and  fearlessly  bared  in  ar 


24  THE    COLON. 

instant  to  whatever  of  terror  there  may  be  in  war  and  death  ;  — 
all  these  you  have  witnessed,  but  you  witness  them  no  more. 

How  we  have  fared  since  then  ;  what  woful  variety  of  schemes 
have  been  adopted  ;  what  enforcing,  and  what  repealing  ;  what 
doing  and  undoing  ;  what  shiftings,  and  changings,  and  jum- 
blings  of  all  kinds  of  men  at  hcrtue,  which  left  no  possibility  of 
order,  consistency,  or  vigor,  —  it  is  a  tedious  task  to  recount. 

4. 

A  noun  is  the  name  of  anything  that  exists,  or  of  which  we 
have  any  notion  ;  as,  London,  man,  virtue. 

The  rough  breathing  shows  that  the  vowel  is  aspirated  ;  i.  e. 
that  it  is  preceded  by  the  sound  of  h. 

The  names  of  religious  sects  should  always  commence  with 
capitals  ;  e.  g.  Christian,  Mohammedan,  Catholic,  Protestant, 
Baptist,  Unitarian. 

The  Ancient  Greek  language  has  been  divided  by  grammarians 
into  four  principal  dialects  ;  viz.  Attic,  Ionic,  Doric,  and  iEolic. 

II.    The  Colon. 

1.  The  colon  is  most  generally  used  for  the  purpose 
of  introducing  a  speech  or  quotation  consisting  of  more 
than  one  sentence,  or  a  series  of  propositions  or  state- 
ments, when  formally  introduced  by  thus,  as  follows, 
this,  namely,  etc.  Where  the  quotation,  or  other  mat- 
ter subjoined,  commences  a  new  paragraph,  a  dash  should 
be  used  after  the  colon  at  the  end  of  a  paragraph. 

2.  But  where  a  quotation  is  not  directly  introduced 
by  the  preceding  sentence,  a  full  stop  should  be  used. 

3.  Where  the  quotation  is  short,  but  is  introduced 
by  expressions  like  these  words,  this  maxim,  etc.,  a  colon 
should  be  used. 

4.  The  colon  may  be  used  to  sepanxte  two  short  sen- 
tences, which  have  so  close  a  connection  that  a  period 
would  be  too  great  a  separation,  while  the  sentences 
require  a  more  marked  stop  than  the  semicolon. 


THE  COLON.  25 

5.  The  colon  is  sometimes  used  to  separate  clauses 
which  are  subdivided  by  semicolons. 

6.  The  colon  is  used  on  title-pages,  and  in  catalogues 

of  books,  between  the  place  of  publication  and  the  name 

of  the  publisher. 

1. 

At  a  meeting  held  last  evening,  the  First  Parish  passed  the 
following  vote,  viz . :  — 

The  Hon.  James  A.  Garfield  was  then  introduced  to  the  meet- 
ing, and  spoke  as  follows  :  — 

Socrates  recommended  to  one  of  his  disciples  this  prayer: 
"  0  Jupiter,  give  us  those  things,"  etc. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident :  that  all  men  are  cre- 
ated equal ;  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with  certain 
unalienable  rights ;  that  among  these  are  life,  liberty,  and  the 
pursuit  of  happiness. 

2. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  give  a  few  extracts  from  the  work. 
In  order  to  prove  this,  I  will  now  read  precisely  what  the  gen- 
tleman did  say. 

3. 

In  his  last  moments  he  uttered  these  words  :  "I  fall  a  sacri- 
fice to  sloth  and  luxury." 

4. 

Avoid  evil-doers :  in  such  society  an  honest  man  may  become 
ashamed  of  himself. 

Some  things  we  can,  and  others  we  cannot  do :  we  can  walk, 
but  we  cannot  fly. 

5. 

A  clause  is  either  independent  or  dependent :  independent,  if 
it  foi-ms  an  assertion  by  itself ;  dependent,  if  it  enters  into  some 
other  clause  with  the  value  of  a  part  of  speech.  —  /.  D.  IVJiitney. 

See  second  example  under  Semicolon,  3,  page  23. 

6. 

Boston  :  Lee  and  Shepard. 
New  York  :  Harper  Brothers. 
Cambridge  :  Charles  W.  Sever. 
London :  Sampson  Low,  Son,  &  Co. 


26  THE  PERIOD. 


III.    The  Period. 


1.  The  period  is  used  at  the  end  of  every  complete 
sentence  which  does  not  require  either  an  interrogation 
or  exclamation  point. 

2.  A  period  must  be  used  after  every  heading  or  sub- 
heading, whether  in  a  separate  line  or  at  the  com- 
mencement of  a  paragraph,  or  over  a  column  of  figures 
in  tabular  work  ;  also  after  the  address  of  a  letter  or 
printed  document,  as  well  as  after  the  signature,  and,  if 
there  is  more  than  one  signature,  after  each  and  every 
one.  After  the  word  Page,  Chapter,  Section,  or  other 
similar  division,  in  tables  of  contents  or  indexes,  where 
it  stands  over  a  column  of  figures  or  numerals,  it  is, 
however,  the  general  practice  to  omit  the  period. 

3.  The  period  should  be  used  after  every  abbreviated 
word,  and  where  two  letters  are  used  for  two"  separate 
words  each  letter  should  have  a  period  after  it ;  as,  i.  e. 
for  id  est ;  e.  g.  for  exempli  gratia,  etc.  But  if  the 
word  is  abbreviated  by  an  apostrophe  for  letters  omit- 
ted, no  period  should  be  used ;  as,  cont^d  for  continued. 
(See  Abbreviations.) 

4.  A  period  is  always  put  after  Roman  numerals, 
except  where  they  are  used  for  numbering  pages  of  in- 
troductory or  otlier  matter,  when  the  period  should 
not  be  used. 

5.  Where  Arabic  numerals  are  used  for  numbering 
paragraphs,  or  lists  of  particulars  or  subjects  in  the  same 
paragraph,  they  should  be  followed  by  the  period ;  also 
where  they  are  used  for  references  to  different  divisions 
of  a  book,  as  is  explained  in  the  chapter  on  Citations 
and  Abbreviations,  page  49. 

6.  References  to  foot-notes,  whether  figures,  letters, 


THE  PERIOD.  27 

or  the  common  reference  marks,  should  have  no  period 
or  other  mark  after  them.  Sometimes  parentheses  are 
used ;  but  this  is  unnecessary,  and  they  look  badly. 

7.  Periods  denote  an  omission  in  a  quotation,  where 
it  is  not  desired  to  give  the  whole  of  it.  When  part  of 
a  sentence  is  omitted,  four  periods  are  commonly  used, 
with  spaces  between  them.  When  a  paragraph  is  omit- 
ted, a  line  of  five  or  six  periods  is  generally  used. 

8.  Periods  are  used  for  leaders  in  tables  of  contents, 
indexes,  and  tabular  matter,  to  carry  the  eye  of  the 
reader  to  the  proper  figure  or  figures.  Where  the  space 
between  the  words  and  figures  is  not  great,  the  periods 
may  be  one  em  apart ;  but  if  the  space  is  large,  they  are 
much  better  two  ems  apart,  arranged  in  diamond  form. 

9.  The  period  is  used  to  set  off  decimal  numbers  from 
whole  numbers ;  also  before  figures  to  show  that  they 
constitute  a  decimal,  and  not  a  whole  number;  as, 
.0048  gr.,  .025  mile,  .0075  inch ;  and  consequently, 
in  money  of  the  United  States,  to  divide  dollars  and 
cents;  as,  $240.54,  $2,588.46,  etc.^ 


1  A  very  common  error  in  writing  a  decimal  number  is  to  use 
the  plural  after  it;  as,  .0048  grains,  .025  miles,  ..38  yards.  This  is 
wrong,  as  any  decimal  number,  no  matter  of  how  many  or  how  few 
figures  it  consists,  is  less  than  the  whole  number  one,  and  therefore 
cannot  be  plural.  The  above  expressions  mean  48  ten-thousandths 
of  a  grain;  25  thousandths  of  a  mile;  38  hundredths  of  a  yard;  and 
therefore  the  singular  number  should  be  used,  grain,  viile,  yard. 


28  THE  INTERROGATION  POINT. 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE  INTERROGATION  AND  EXCLAMATION 

POINTS. 

I.   The  Interrogation  Point. 

1.  The  interrogation  point  is  used  at  the  end  of  every 
sentence  which  constitutes  a  direct  question,  in  whatever 
form  it  may  be  expressed ;  and  every  direct  question  of 
a  series  should  have  the  interrogation  mark  after  it. 

2.  'No  question  should  be  divided  by  any  other  point 
than  a  comma ;  but  if  a  question  is  so  constructed  that 
a  greater  break  is  required,  a  dash  should  be  used. 

3.  A  series  of  questions  may  be  asked  omitting  the 
interrogatory  clause  after  the  first  question,  each  of 
which  should  have  the  interrogation  mark. 

4.  An  indirect  question  should  not  have  the  interro- 
gation mark  after  it. 

1. 

The  sun  not  set  yet,  Thomas  ? 

What  is  civilization  ?  where  is  it  ?  what  does  it  consist  in  ?  by 
what  is  it  excluded  ?  where  does  it  commence  ?  where  does  it 
end  ?  by  what  sign  is  it  known  ?  how  is  it  defined  ?  In  short, 
what  does  it  mean  ? 

I  pause  for  a  reply.  —  None  ?    Then  none  have  I  offended. 

What  ceremony  else  ? —  HumJd. 

What  mean'st  thou  by  that  ?  Mend  me,  thou  saucy  fellow  ?  — 
Julius  Cccsar. 

2. 

Where  doth  the  world  thnist  forth  a  vanity,  — 
So  it  be  new,  there  's  no  respect  how  vile,  — 
That  is  not  quickly  buzzed  into  his  ears  ? 


THE   EXCLAMATION   POINT.  29 

Are  you  still  —  I  fear  you  are  —  far  from  being  comfortably 
settled  ? 

Ah  !  whither  now  are  fled  those  dreams  of  greatness,  —  those 
busy,  bustling  days,  —  those  gay-spent,  festive  nights,  —  those 
veering  thoughts,  lost  between  good  and  ill,  that  shared  thy  life  ? 

Canst  thou,  and  honored  with  a  Christian  name, 
Buy  what  is  woman-born,  and  feel  no  shame,  — 
Trade  in  the  blood  of  innocence,  and  plead 
Expedience  as  a  warrant  for  the  deed  ? 

3. 

Where  be  your  gibes  now  ?  your  gambols  ?  j'our  songs  ?  your 
flashes  of  merriment,  that  were  wont  to  set  the  table  on  a  roar  ? 
No  one  now  to  mock  your  own  grinning  ?  quite  chap-fallen  ?  — 
Hamlet. 

4. 

He  then  demanded  whether  I  intended  to  comply  with  his 
re(piest. 

The  judge  asked  the  witness  if  he  believed  the  man  to  be 
guilty. 

He  asked  what  I  would  do  in  that  case . 


II.    The  Exclamation  Point. 

1.  The  exclamation  point  is  used  after  interjections, 
exclamatory  words  or  phrases,  and  sentences  expressing 
a  wish,  wonder,  strong  emotion,  or  passion. 

2.  Where  an  interjection  commences  a  sentence  which 
requires  the  exclamation  point  at  the  end,  it  is  not  usu- 
ally necessary  to  put  the  point  also  after  the  interjection. 

3.  Interjections,  when  repeated  to  express  laughter, 
or  any  other  sound,  take  the  exclamation  point  only 
after  the  last, 

Difi'erence  between  Oh !  and  O. 

4.  Oh/  is  properly  used  only  as  an  interjection  ex- 
pressive of  pain,  woe,  or  surprise.     This  is  the  only 


30  THE  EXCLAMATION  POINT. 

signification  given  in  the  Dictionaries  of  Johnson,  Wor- 
cester, and  Webster,  although  the  editors  of  the  last 
edition  of  Webster  give  the  additional  signification  of 
the  expression  of  a  Avish.  But  this  last  use  is  gener- 
ally considered  erroneous,  although  examples  of  it  are 
frequent.^ 

5.  0  is  used  for  the  sign  of  address,  or  the  vocative 
case ;  for  the  expression  of  a  wish  or  an  imprecation ; 
to  introduce  an  exclamatory  phrase;  and,  colloquially, 
as  an  unmeaning  introduction  to  a  sentence,  where  it 
might  be  omitted  without  at  all  affecting  the  sense. 

6.  The  exclamation  point  may  be  used  after  the  voca- 
tive when  very  strong  feeling  or  passion  is  expressed, 
or  where  the  address  follows  an  interjection  or  exclam- 
atory expression. 

7.  Oh  !  always  requires  the  exclamation  point  imme- 
diately after  it,  except  in  the  case  stated  under  Rule  2, 
above.  0  never  shoidd  have  the  mark  immediately 
after  it. 

1. 
May  the  gods  requite ! 
Would  that  I  had  perished ! 

Hark  !  liaik  !  tlie  Dauphin's  drum,  a  warning  bell ! 
Whew  !     A  plague  upon  you  all ! 

0  God  !  tliat  men  should  put  an  enemy  in  their  mouths,  to 
steal  away  their  brains  !  —  Othello. 

2. 

They  shall  not  lament  for  him,  saying,  Ah  my  brother !  or, 
Ah  sister !  ...  Ah  lord  !  or,  Ah  his  glory  ! 
Oh,  how  I  suffer  ! 
Alas  both  for  the  deed  and  for  the  cause  ! 

Ho,  trumpets,  sound  a  war  note  ! 

Ho,  lictors,  clear  the  way  ! 

1  See  Crosby's  Greek  Grammar,  pp.  379,  380,  384;  Goodwin's, 
pp.  257,  289,  290 ;  Goold  Brown's  Grammar,  p.  US. 


THE  EXCLAMATION   POINT.  31 

3. 

Ha,  ha,  ha  !  —  He,  he,  he  !  —  Ho,  ho,  ho  ! 
Click,  click,  click  !  —  Whack,  whack,  whack  ! 
Knock,  knock,  knock  !     Who  'g  there  1'  the  name  of  Beelze- 
bub ?  —  Macbeth. 

4. 

Oh !  my  offence  is  rank,  it  smells  to  heaven.  —  Hamlet. 
But,  oh !  what  damned  minutes  tells  he  o'er,  who  dotes,  yet 
doubts  !  —  Otliello. 

Oh  !  how  vain  and  transitory  are  all  things  here  below  ! 

Oh  !  you  are  wounded,  my  lord  ! 

But  oh !  as  to  embrace  me  she  inclined,  I  waked.  —  Milton. 

But  she  is  in  her  grave,  and  oh ! 

The  difference  to  me  !  —  Wordsworth. 

5. 

0  that  I  had  wings  like  a  dove  ! 

0  that  this  too,  too  solid  flesh  would  melt,  thaw,  and  resolve 
itself  into  a  dew  !  —  Hamlet. 

0  that  my  words  were  now  written  !  0  that  they  were  printed 
in  a  book  ! 

1  hojie  we  have  reformed  that  indifferently  with  i;s.  —  0, 
reform  it  altogether.  —  Ha mlet. 

Remuneration  !   0,  that 's  the  Latin  word  for  three  farthings. 
Wliere  are  you  going  ?  —  0,  only  to  Boston. 

Catch,  then,  0,  catch  the  transient  hour, 
Improve  each  moment  as  it  flies. 

6. 

Woe  unto  thee,  Chorazin  !     Woe  unto  thee,  Bethsaida  ! 

How  amiable  thou  art,  0  virtue  ! 

Rouse,  ye  Romans  !  rouse,  ye  slaves  ! 

All  hail,  ye  patriots  brave  ! 

Ah,  child  !  you  are  as  innocent  as  the  flower  that  grows  under 
our  feet. 

Great  Glamis  !  worthy  Cawdor  !  Greater  than  both  by  tho 
all-hail  hereafter  !  —  Macbeth. 

Romans,  countrymen,  and  lovers,  hear  me  for  my  cause,  and 
be  silent  that  you  may  hear. — Julius  Cwsar. 

Friends,  Romans,  countrymen,  lend  me  your  ears.  —  Ibid. 


32  THE  DASH. 


CHAPTEE    IV. 

THE  DASH,   PARENTHESES,   AND  BRACKETS. 

I.    The  Dash. 

1.  The  dash  is  a  very  useful  and  necessary  point  when 
properly  used ;  but  many  books  are  so  uselessly  encum- 
bered with  it,  that  it  loses  all  significance  as  a  proper 
mark  of  punctuation. 

2.  The  dash  is  used  before  and  after  a  parenthetical 
clause  which  is  too  closely  connected  with  and  necessary 
to  the  whole  sentence  to  be  enclosed  in  parentheses,  and 
yet  requires  for  its  ready  comprehension  to  be  distinctly 
separated  from  the  other  parts  of  the  sentence.  Com- 
mas should  be  used  before  the  dashes  only  where  a 
comma  would  be  necessary  if  the  sentence  included  be- 
tween the  dashes  were  omitted.  (This  rule  also  applies 
to  the  case  of  parentheses  and  brackets.) 

To  render  the  Constitution  perpetual,  —  which  God  grant  it 
may  be,  —  it  is  necessary  that  its  benefits  should  be  practically 
felt  by  all  parts  of  the  country.  —  D.  Webster. 

3.  The  dash  is  used  where  the  construction  of  a 
sentence  is  changed  or  suspended,  and  the  sentence 
concluded  in  an  unexpected  manner,  or  with  an  epi- 
grammatic turn  of  the  sentiment ;  also  where,  in 
dialogue,  one  of  the  speakers  is  interrupted  or  breaks 
off  in  the  midst  of  a  sentence. 

Was  there  ever  a  bolder  captain  of  a  more  valiant  band  ? 
Was  there  ever —     But  I  scorn  to  boast. 


THE  DASH.  33 

Then  the  eye  of  a  child,  —  who  can  look  unmoved  into  that 
well  undefiled,  in  which  heaven  itself  seems  to  be  reflected  ? 

You  have  given  the  command  to  a  person  of  illustrious 
birth,  of  ancient  family,  of  innumerable  statues,  but  —  of  no 
experience. 

His  proctorship  in  Sicily,  —  what  did  it  produce  ? 

Greece,  Carthage,  Rome,  —  where  are  they  ? 

Heaven  gives  its  favorites  —  early  death. 

The  four  greatest  names  in  English  poetry  are  almost  the  first 
we  come  to,  —  Chaucer,  Spenser,  Shakespeare,  and  Milton. 

Gray  and  Collins  aimed  at  the  dazzling  imagery  and  magnifi- 
cence of  lyrical  poetry,  —  the  direct  antipodes  of  Pope. 

Here  lies  the  great  —     False  marble  !  where  ? 
Nothing  but  sordid  dust  lies  here. 

Cassius.  Yet  I  fear  him : 

For  in  the  ingrafted  love  he  bears  to  Caesar  — 
Brutus.    Alas  !  good  Cassius,  do  not  think  of  him. 

4.  The  dash  is  also  used  to  separate  a  heading  at  the 
commencement  of  a  paragraph  from  the  subject  matter 
following ;  and  before  an  authority  when  it  is  given  at 
the  end  of  a  quotation. 

5.  Sometimes  it  is  used  to  show  faltering  or  hesitation 
in  speaking. 

He  was  extremely  concerned  it  should  happen  so  ;  but  —  a  — 
it  was  necessary  —  a  —     Here  Lord  E stopped  him  short. 

6.  A  dash  is  used  to  denote  an  omission  of  part  of  a 

word  when  it  is  not  desirable  to  print  it  in  full,  either 

to  avoid  profanity  or  indelicacy ;  —  or  of  a  name,  when 

it  is  not  desirable  to  give  it  in  full. 

Mrs.  C n  gave  a  large  party  at  her  residence  on  B n 

Street,  last  evening. 

7.  Where  a  conversation  is  carried  on  between  two 
parties,  and  the  speech  of  each  person  is  not  put  in  a 
separate  paragraph,  a  dash  should  be  used  to  separate 
the  different  speeches.  — A  dash  may  also  be  used  where 


34  THE   DASH. 

a  decided  change  of  subject  occurs  in  a  paragraph,  and 
want  of  space  prevents  the  making  of  separate  para- 
graphs. This  often  occurs  in  Gazetteers,  Encyclopae- 
dias, etc.,  where  saving  of  space  is  a  primary  con- 
sideration. 

8.  A  short  dash  is  used  between  two  numbers  to 
represent  that  they  are  a  series,  inchiding  the  numbers 
given  and  all  the  intervening  ones.  Also  to  show  that 
a  part  of  two  or  more  consecutive  years  is  included  in 
a  certain  term.  Also,  where  dates  are  given  between 
the  1st  of  January  and  the  25th  of  March  from  the 
time  of  the  adoption  of  the  New  Style  by  the  Catholic 
Church  in  1582  to  the  time  of  its  adoption  by  the 
English  Parliament  in  1752,^  to  show  that  according 
to  Old  Style  it  is  in  one  year,  and  according  to  New 
Style  in  the  other. 

See  pages  228-240.  —  The  years  1840-44.  —  Nos.  28-40. 
The  Congi-ess  of  1879-81.  —  The  session  of  1833-34. 
The  winter  of  1777-78.  —  Catalogue  of  Harvard  University 
for  1833-34. 

January  10,  1641-2.  —The  18th  of  March,  1724-5. 

9.  In  quoting  pages  or  numbers  the  full  figures  should 
always  be  used;  as,  pp.  245-253,  Nos.  124-129;  not 
245-53,  124-9.  But  in  giving  dates  the  figures  repre- 
senting the  century  may  be  dropped;  as,  1634-35,  not 
1634-5  ;  1713-15,  not  1713-5  ;  1875-79,  not  1875-9  ; 
as  such  a  date  might  sometimes  appear  to  represent  Old 
and  New  Style. 

1  On  the  16th  of  March,  27  Eliz.  1584-5,  a  bill  was  read  the  first 
time,  in  the  House  of  Lords,  entitled  "An  Act  giving  her  Majesty- 
authority  to  alter  and  new  make  a  Calendar,  according  to  the  Calen- 
dar used  in  other  countries."  —  Sir  Harns  Nicolas.  But  the  change 
was  not  made  till  the  year  1752.  The  Old  Style  is  still  retained 
in  Russia  and  Greece,  and  is  now  twelve  days  beliind  the  regular 
calendar. 


PARENTHESES  AND  BRACKETS.        35 

II.    Parentheses  and  Brackets. 

1.  Parentheses  are  used  to  enclose  an  explanation, 
authority,  definition,  reference,  translation,  or  other 
matter  not  strictly  belonging  to  the  sentence.  They 
are  now  seldom  used  for  any  other  purpose, 

2.  The  use  of  brackets  is  the  same  as  that  of  paren- 
theses, but  is  restricted  to  interpolations,  corrections, 
notes,  or  explanations  made  by  authors  in  quotations 
from  others,  or  by  editors  in  editing  works. 

3.  When  a  parenthesis  is  inserted  at  a  place  in  the 
sentence  where  no  comma  is  required,  no  point  should 
be  used  before  either  parenthesis.  When  inserted  at 
a  place  requiring  a  comma,  if  the  parenthetical  matter 
relates  to  the  whole  sentence,  a  comma  should  be  used 
before  each  parenthesis ;  if  it  relates  to  a  single  word, 
or  short  clause,  no  stop  should  come  before  it,  but  a 
comma  should  be  put  after  the  closing  parenthesis.  This 
rule  also  applies  to  the  semicolon  and  period. 

Their  eyeballs  were  seared  (was  it  not  so,  sir?)  who  had 
thought  to  shield  themselves  by  concealing  their  own  hand, 
.and  laying  the  imputation  of  the  crime  on  a  low  and  hireling 
agency  in  wickedness. — D.  Webster. 

For  I  know  that  in  me  (that  is,  in  my  flesh)  dwelleth  no  good 
thing.  — Ro7n.  vii.  18. 

Now  for  a  recompense  in  the  same,  (I  speak  as  unto  ray  chil- 
dren,) be  ye  also  enlarged.  —  2  Cor.  vi.  1.3. 

Know  then  this  truth,  (enough  for  man  to  know,) 
Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below.  —  Pope. 
Night  visions  may  befriend  (as  sung  above) : 
Our  waking  dreams  are  fatal.     How  I  dreamt 
Of  things  impossible  !  (could  sleep  do  more  ?) 
Of  joys  perpetual  in  perpetual  change  I  —  Young, 
A  captious  question,  sir,  (and  yours  is  one,) 
Deserves  an  answer  similar,  or  none.  —  Cowpcr. 
See,  for  other  examples,  page  48.  3,  and  page  51.  3  and  6. 


36  THE  APOSTROPHE. 


CHAPTEE    V. 

THE  APOSTROPHE.  —  POSSESSIVE  CASE. 

1.  The  apostrophe  marks  the  elision  of  a  syllable,  in 
poetry  or  in  familiar  dialogue ;  as,  /  've,  for  /  have ; 
thou  Wt,  for  thou  art ;  yoxi  HI,  for  you  will ;  H  was,  for 
it  was ;  't  is,  for  it  is ;  don't,  for  do  not ;  'midst,  for 
amidst ;  'mongst,  for  amongst ;  of  H,  for  of  it.  Also, 
the  elision  of  letters  in  a  word  when  it  is  necessary  to 
abbreviate  it ;  as,  cont'd  for  contained. 

In  all  cases  where  two  words  are  thus  made  into  one 
syllable,  a  space  should  be  left  between  the  words,  as 
though  they  were  not  abbreviated.  Don't,  can't,  won't, 
and  sha'n't,  however,  are  printed  as  single  words. 

"  Love's  Labor  's  Lost."  —  "  All 's  Well  that  ends  Well." 
'T  is  pleasant,  sure,  to  see  one's  name  in  print ; 
A  book  's  a  book,  although  there  's  nothing  in  't. 

2.  The  apostrophe  also  denotes  the  elision  of  the 
century  in  dates,  where  the  century  is  understood,  or  to 
save  the  repetition  of  a  series  of  figures. 

The  spirit  of  76. 

This  was  continued  during  the  years  1823,  '24,  '25,  and  '26. 

This  happened  in  the  year  '95. 

First  of  November,  'Fifty-five  ! 

This  morning  the  parson  takes  a  drive. 

3.  Apostrophes  are  used  for  the  closing  mark  of  a 
quotation,  as  inverted  commas  are  used  for  the  begin- 
ning, and  are  double  or  single  according  to  the  rules 


POSSESSIVE  CASE.  87 

given  in  the  next  chapter,  under  the  head  of  "  Quo- 
tations." 

4.  The  apostrophe  is  further  used  to  denote  the  plu- 
ral of  figures  and  letters. 

Mind  your^'s  and  ^'s. 

Cross  your  t's  and  dot  your  i's. 

Cast  out  the  9's  in  the  above  example. 

Make  your  7's  and  3's  more  distinct. 

Possessive  Case. 

The  apostrophe  indicates  the  possessive  case,  accord- 
ing to  the  following 

KULES. 

1.  All  nouns  in  the  singular  numher,  whether  proper 
names  or  not,  and  all  nouns  in  the  plural  ending  with 
any  other  letter  than  s,  form  the  possessive  by  the  ad- 
dition of  the  apostrophe  and  the  letter  s ;  as,  man's, 
merts,  child's,  children's,  Charles's,  Felix's,  Hastings's, 
vntness's,  countess's} 

The  only  exceptions  to  this  rule  are,  that,  by  poetical 
license,  the  additional  s  may  be  elided  in  poetry  for  the 
sake  of  the  meter;  and  that  the  Scriptural  phrases, 
"For  righteousness'  sake,"  "For  conscience'  sake," 
"For  goodness'  sake,"  "For  Jesus*  sake,"  etc.,  have 
become  established  idioms  of  the  language. 

2.  All  plural  nouns  ending  in  s  form  the  possessive 
by  the  addition  of  an  apostrophe  after  the  s  ;  as,  boys' y 
horses',  Charleses',  Jameses',  countesses'. 

3.  The  possessive  pronoun  never  takes  the  apostro- 
phe ;  as,  ours,  yours,  hers,  theirs. 

1  The  above  rule  is  oftener  violated,  perhaps,  than  any  other  rule 
of  English  grammar.  But  the  possessive  case,  like  the  plural  num- 
bei;,  always  makes  an  additional  syllable  where  the  nominative  ends 


38  •  PARAGRAPHS. 


CHAPTEE    VI. 
OF   PARAGRAPHS   AND  QUOTATIONS. 

I.  Paragraphs. 

1.  Every  separate  paragraph  should  be  indented  an 
em,  in  printers'  phrase.  This  rule  should  be  followed  in 
all  cases,  except  where,  at  the  beginning  of  a  chapter  or 
other  subdivision,  a  large  initial  letter  is  used.^ 

2.  In  mottoes,  contents  at  the  head  of  a  chapter,  and 
other  matter  of  the  sort,  however,  what  is  called  a 
"  hanging  indentation  "  is  used,  in  which  the  first  line 
is  brought  out  full,  and  the  succeeding  lines  are  in- 
dented at  the  beginning ;  so  that  the  first  line  is  longer 
than  the  others,  instead  of  shorter,  as  in  the  regular 
paragraph. 

3.  Paragraphs  of  over  a  page  in  length  should  be 
avoided,  as  they  give  a  solid  and  unattractive  appear- 
ance to  the  page,  and  resting-places  for  the  reader's  eye 
are  convenient.  On  the  other  hand,  the  French  fash- 
ion of  making  separate  paragraphs  of  almost  every  sen- 

witl',  die  sound  of  s,  and  the  plural  syllable  might  as  well  be  elided 
as  that  of  tlie  possessive.  We  should  not  think  of  saying,  "  In  the 
time  of  the  Charles,"  and  there  is  no  more  reason  for  saying,  "The 
Charles'  times."  The  only  proper  way  to  avoid  a  harsh  or  hissing 
sound  is  to  reform  the  sentence. 

1|  Sometimes  books  and  chapters  are  printed  witliout  indenting 
the  first  line;  this  looks  very  well  where  nothing  but  the  title  stands 
over  the  matter,  but  wheve  a  book  is  complicated  by  subdivisions,  it 
is  rarely  that  uniformity  is  preserved,  and  the  rule  above  given  is 
prefei-able     This  is  a  matter  of  taste,  however. 


QUOTATIONS.  39 

tence  is  yet  more  objectionable.     The  natural  division 
of  the  subject  is  the  proper  guide. 

4.  In  printing  conversations  between  different  per- 
sons, whatever  each  person  says  or  does  usually  consti- 
tutes a  separate  paragraph.  But  if  the  paragraph  is 
broken  for  the  commencement  of  a  speech,  a  new  para- 
graph must  also  be  made  at  its  close,  unless  the  matter 
following  specially  relates  to  the  person  speaking. 

5.  Dates  at  the  end  of  letters,  prefaces,  etc.  should 
generally  be  indented  as  much  as  a  paragraph  of  the 
text.  Signatures,  also,  should  have  the  same  space  left 
at  the  end  of  the  line  as  the  indentation  of  a  paragraph. 
The  address  of  a  letter  is  usually  brought  out  full  to 
the  left.  But  in  all  these  cases  the  general  appearance 
is  alone  to  be  regarded,  taking  into  consideration  the 
broken  lines  above  or  below. 

II.    Quotations. 

1.  Marks  of  quotation  ("  ")  are  used  to  indicate  a 
passage  taken  from  another  author,  or  anything  said 
by  a  speaker  when  it  is  given  in  his  own  words.  But 
the  marks  are  not  used  when  the  substance  only  of  a 
passage  is  given,  or  when  a  speech  is  not  given  in  the 
first  person.  The  mark  for  the  commencement  of  a 
quotation  is  the  inverted  comma,  and  that  for  the  close 
is  the  apostrophe.  Double  marks  are  generally  used 
for  a  quotation  ;  but  where  one  quotation  occurs  within 
another,  single  marks  only  should  be  used. 

2.  In  quoting  words  or  sentences  the  period  and 
comma  always  come  before  (or  rather  under)  the  closing 
quotation  mark ;  but  the  interrogation  or  exclamation 
point,  the  colon,  or  the  semicolon  should  come  before 
or  after  the  quotation  mark  according  as  it  is  a  part  of 


40  QUOTATIONS. 

the  quotation  or  not.  Where  a  dash  is  used  after  a 
speech  or  quoted  sentence  to  show  that  it  is^incomplete, 
the  quotation  mark  should  come  after  the  dash. 

3.  In  quotations  from  books  or  letters,  if  the  quo- 
tation is  long,  it  is  usual  to  begin  it  with  a  paragraph. 
If  the  quotation  does  not  begin  a  paragraph,  none  should 
be  made  before  its  close. 

4.  Every  new  paragraph  should  have  the  commencing 
quotation  marks,  but  no  close  should  be  used  except  at 
the  end  of  the  last-quoted  paragraph  ;  —  unless  there  is 
a  break  in  the  quotation,  when  a  close  may  be  intro- 
duced, although  periods  are  generally  used,^  without  clos- 
ing the  quotation,  and  without  commencing  after  the 
periods,  unless  the  renewed  quotation  begins  another 
paragraph.  The  same  rule  applies  to  stanzas  in  poetry 
as  to  paragraphs  in  prose. 

5.  Titles  of  books,  pictures,  or  newspapers,  etc., 
when  formally  given,  are  also  quoted ;  but  where  the 
title  of  a  book  is  well  known,  —  as  the  Iliad,  the  Odys- 
sey, the  iEneid,  or  Paradise  Lost,  —  or  is  abbreviated, 
or  is  frequently  repeated,  it  is  not  necessary  to  use 
quotation  marks,  especially  in  foot-notes,  or  where  con- 
stant reference  is  made  to  different  works ;  but  marks 
should  always  be  used  where  any  doubt  would  exist 
as  to  the  title  of  a  book. 

"As  we  have  seen,  the  period  that  followed  the  publication  of 
'(Ferdinand  and  Isabella'  was  not  fruitful  in  literary  results. 
Except  a  pleasant  article  on  Lockhart's  Life  of  Scott,  which  he 
prepared  for  the  North  American  Review,  he  wrote  nothing  dur- 
ing that  winter."  —  Ticknor's  Life  of  Prcscott. 

"  Have  been  occupied  with  corrections  and  additions  on  my 
'Mexico.'  On  my  return  to  Boston  shall  resume  my  labors  on 
♦Philip."'— /6ic^. 

1  For  the  use  of  periods  for  this  purpose,  see  page  27. 


QUOTATIONS.  '     41 

6.  In  giving  titles  of  works  in  foreign  languages,  a 
very  good  practice  is  to  put  tliem  in  Italics.  But  in 
this  case  quotation  marks  must  not  also  be  used. 

7.  Some  authors  invariably  introduce  an  extract 
from  a  book  or  letter  by  a  colon.  But  this  is  improper 
unless  the  connection  is  close.  After  such  phrases  as 
the  following,  however,  it  is  proper  to  use  the  colon. 

"  The  writer  describes  this  scene  in  these  words  : " 

"  He  proceeded  to  read  the  letter,  which  was  as  follows : " 

"  We  give  this  elegant  specimen  of  our  author's  style :  " 

8.  In  quoting  stanzas  of  poetry,  the  commencing 
quotation  mark  should  stand  outside  of  the  stanza,  so 
that  the  lines  themselves  will  stand  precisely  as  in  the 
original.     Thus  :  — 

"  There  sat  Yousuf  and  the  Alcayde 
In  the  castle,  playing  chess. 
'  Wliat  is  this  ? '  tlie  keeper  muttered  ; 
'  Some  bad  tidings,  as  I  guess.'  " 

The  mistake  should  not  be  made  of  allowing  the  quo- 
tation marks  within  the  stanza  itself  to  stand  outside 
of  the  other  lines,  as  is  done  by  some  printers,  in  the 
case  of  such  lines  as  the  third  and  fourth  of  the  fore- 
going quotation.     (See  also  page  44.  4.) 

9.  The  names  of  vessels  are  sometimes  quoted.  But 
this  seems  to  be  quite  as  unnecessary  generally  as 
quoting  the  names  of  streets,  churches,  or  anything 
else ;  especially  in  any  work  where  constant  repetition 
of  the  names  of  vessels  occurs. 

"  A  collision  took  place  on  the  Sound  on  Friday  night  between 
the  steamers  Stonington  and  Narragansett.  The  Narragansett 
Boon  began  to  sink,  and  immediately  took  fire.  The  steamer 
City  of  New  York  sent  boats  to  their  assistance,  and  took  a  large 
number  of  passengers  off  the  vessel.  During  Saturday  the 
steamer  Relief,  of  the  Coast  Wrecking  Company,  arrived  at  the 


42  QUOTATIONS. 

scene  of  the  disaster.  The  schooner  Report  still  lies  alongside. 
A  metallic  life-boat  was  picked  up  about  iive  miles  from  the 
wreck,  containing  a  number  of  life-preservers  marked  '  Narra- 
gansett.'  " 

10.  Where  a  quotation  is  made  within  a  second  quo- 
tation, which  has  the  single  mark,  the  double  mark 
must  be  again  used.  But  this  should  be  avoided  if 
possible,  especially  where  the  three  would  come  together 
at  the  close. 

Note.  —  Some  authors  undertake  to  quote  verbatim  et  literatim, 
giving  even  typographical  errors  and  misspellirigs.  But  this,  unless 
the  quotation  is  made  for  the  purpose  of  holding  an  author  up  to 
ridicule,  or  unless  the  peculiarities  are  given  with  some  other  special 
purpose,  is  worse  than  useless;  as  the  incongruities  of  spelling  and 
the  typographical  errors  will  always  be  attributed  to  the  printer 
of  the  copied  matter,  who,  if  he  has  any  pride  in  the  accuracy 
of  his  press,  will  naturally  be  averse  to  such  literal  copying  with- 
out an  explicit  statement  of  the  fact.  A  person  would  not  repeat 
blunders  of  sjjelling  or  grammar  in  quoting  a  letter  from  a  friend, 
and  there  can  be  no  sense  in  quoting  blunders  except  to  expose 
them. 

The  attempt  to  reproduce  in  print  all  the  little  peculiarities  of 
small  letters  at  the  top  of  the  line,  slips  of  the  pen,  etc. ,  seems  quite 
as  absurd,  except  where  it  might  have  a  bearing  on  some  impor- 
tant fact.  No  two  persons  would  ever  copy  an  old  document  pre- 
cisely alike,  and  the  reader  can  get  no  accurate  idea  of  the  appear- 
ance of  the  original  unless  by  photographic  reproduction.  Extracts 
from  ancient  documents  made  by  different  persons,  and  printed  in 
diiferent  works,  are  frequently  seen,  which  have  numberless  vaiia- 
tions  in  the  typography,  but  of  no  importance  whatever.  Of  course 
the  general  antique  spelling  and  quauitness  of  expression  should  be 
followed. 


CAPITALS.  43 


CHAPTER    VII. 

CAPITALS  AND  ITALICS. 

I.    Capitals. 

1.  Every  independent  sentence,  every  line  of  poetry, 
and  every  direct  quotation  should  begin  with  a  capital 
letter. 

An  exception  is  made  in  humorous  poetry  where  a 
word  is  divided  at  the  end  of  a  line,  when  tlie  part  of 
the  word  beginning  the  second  line  is  printed  with  a 
small  letter. 

There  first  for  thee  my  passion  grew, 
Sweet,  sweet  Matilda  Pottingen  ! 
Thou  wast  the  daughter  of  my  tu- 
tor, law  professor  at  the  U- 

niversity  of  Gottingen. 

2.  The  pronoun  /  and  the  interjection  0  are  always 
written  with  a  capital. 

3.  Names  and  titles  of  the  Deity,  of  Jesus  Christ,  of 
the  Trinity,  and  of  the  Virgin  Mary  should  begin  with 
a  capital  letter. 

God,  Lord,  Creator,  Father,  the  Almighty,  the  All-wise,  In- 
finite One,  Supreme  Being,  Most  High,  Parent  of  Good  ;  also 
Heaven,  Providence,  where  they  are  used  as  synonymous  with 
the  Deity,  but  not  otherwise. 

The  Messiah,  the  Anointed,  the  Son,  Saviour,  Redeemer, 
Son  of  Man,  Holy  One,  Teacher,  Master. 

The  Holy  Trinity,  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  Holy  Ghost. 

The  Holy  Virgin,  Mother  of  God,  Queen  of  Heaven. 

4.  Pronouns  referring  to  the  Deity  or  to  the  Saviour 
are  also  capitalized  when  used  in  direct  address  without 


44  CAPITALS. 

an  antecedent ;  or  to  prevent  confusion  where,  with  an 
antecedent,  other  pronouns  are  used. 

0  Thou  that  hear'st  the  mourner's  prayer. 
It  entereth  not  his  thoughts  that  God 

Heareth  the  sufl'erer's  groan  ; 
That  in  His  righteous  eye  their  life 
Is  precious  as  his  own. 

"  My  Lord  has  need  of  these  flowerets  gay," 

The  Reaper  said,  and  smiled  ; 
"Dear  tokens  of  the  earth  are  they, 

Where  He  was  once  a  child." 

5.  The  word  Devil  as  appHed  to  a  personal  being, 
supposed  to  be  the  incarnation  of  evil,  should  be  writ- 
ten with  a  capital ;  but  not  when  used  as  an  expletive, 
or  as  a  general  name  for  any  demon. 

When  the  Devil  was  sick,  the  Devil  a  monk  would  be ; 
When  the  Devil  was  well,  the  devil  a  monk  was  he. 
He  will  give  the  Devil  his  due. 

6.  All  proper  names,  and  all  nouns  or  adjectives 
formed  from  proper  names,^  names  of  streets  or  squares, 
the  names  of  the  month,  the  days  of  the  week,  and 
holidays,  —  in  short,  every  word  which  is  used  to  des- 
ignate a  special  thing,  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

The  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  Lake  Ontario,  Broadway,  Washington  Street,  Boston  Com- 
mon, New  York  City  (but  the  city  of  New  York),  January, 
Monday,  Good  Friday,  Easter,  Brahman,  Israelite,  Augustan, 
Elizabethan,  African,  Caucasian,  Indian,  Antichrist. 

7.  Names  from  foreign  languages,  preceded  by  a 
preposition  without  a  title  or  Christian  name,  —  as 
Va7i  in  Dutch,  Von  in  German,  De  or  D'  in  French,  or 
Ba,  Bella,  or  Bi  in  Italian,  —  when  given  in  Englisli, 

1  There  are  a  few  exceptions  to  this,  iu  the  case  of  words  which 
have  become  common ;  as,  china,  champagne,  vandal,  jyocrustean, 
quixotic,  etc.     These  may  be  learned  from  the  Dictionary. 


CAPITALS.  45 

should  be  written  with  a  capital  for  the  preposition ; 
as,  Van  Tromp,  Von  Humboldt,  Von  Moltke,  De  Thou, 
D'Alembert,  Da  Ponte,  Delia  Crusca,  Di  Cesnola,  etc.^ 

8.  Words  applied  to  certain  races,  or  natives  of  cer- 
tain regions,  are  also  capitalized ;  as,  Creole,  Hoosier, 
Yankee,  Caucasian,  etc.  ;  but  not  gypsy,  negro,  quad- 
roon, etc.  Words  distinguishing  certain  regions  should 
also  be  capitalized ;  as,  Transatlantic,  Ultramontane, 
Cisalpine,  etc.  Also,  the  North,  the  South,  the  East, 
the  West,  and  their  corresponding  adjectives,  where 
applied  to  divisions  of  a  country. 

The  North  of  Europe,  Southern  France,  Eastern  Asia. 
Orient,  Occident,  Oriental,  Occidental,  etc. 

9.  a.  Titles  of  honor,  respect,  or  affection,  and  offi- 
cial titles,  should  begin  with  a  capital,  whenever  they 
are  applied  to  a  particular  person,  or  precede  a  name, 
or  occur  in  a  formal  address. 

Her  Majesty,  his  Honor,  your  Royal  Highness,  your  Grace, 
your  Lordship,  etc.'^ 

The  President  of  the  United  States,  the  Governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts, the  Mayor  of  Boston,  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  the  Earl 
of  Oxford,  the  Prince  of  Wales. 

President  Eliot,  General  Hancock,  Lieutenant  Maury. 

Father  Clement,  Brother  Jonathan,  Friend  William,  Aunt 
Mary,  Cousin  John. 

1  The  practice  of  writing  the  preposition  in  such  names  as  these 
with  a  small  letter  prevails  to  some  extent.  This  is  not  only  an  in- 
novation on  established  English  custom,  but  an  absurdity.  If  any 
change  is  made,  the  name  should  be  written  as  a  single  word,  as  Van- 
tromp,  Dethou.  The  old  Norman  names  of  this  sort  retained  in 
England  are  always  written  with  a  capital,  when  not  run  together; 
as,  De  la  Beche,  De  la  Rue,  De  Clifford,  De  Courcy;  Debrett,  Dela- 
mere.  So  of  the  Huguenot  and  Dutch  names  in  America;  as  De 
Lancey,  De  Peyster,  Van  Buren,  Van  Rensselaer,  Van  Schaick,  etc. 
Great  numbers  of  these  have  also  become  consolidated. 

*  Tlie  j)ronoun  in  these  cases  should  not  be  capitalized,  unless  in 
a  formal  afldress. 


46  CAPITALS. 

h.  Titles  like  sir,  madam,  my  lord,  your  ladyship, 
your  honor,  should  not  usually  be  capitalized.  Where 
titles  like  king,  duhe,  etc.  occur  frequently,  small  letters 
may  be  used  ;  but  peculiar  titles  belonging  only  to  one 
individual  should  be  capitalized. 

The  Czar  of  Russia,  the  Pope,  the  Dauphin,  the  Sultan  of 
Turkey,  the  Khedive  of  Egypt,  the  Bey  of  Tunis. 

c.  Where  a  person  has  been  mentioned  by  name  and 

title,  and  is  afterwards  mentioned  only  by  his  title,  it 

should  be  capitalized. 

General  Grant  has  reti;rned,  after  his  long  tour  abroad.  The 
General  appears  to  be  iu  excellent  health. 

d.  Compounded  titles,  like  Attorney-General,  Vice- 
President,  Hear- Admiral,  Major-General,  should  have 
both  words  capitalized. 

'  10.  The  names  of  all  religious  sects,  and  of  all  politi- 
cal parties,  whether  derived  from  proper  names  or  not, 
and  adjectives  or  verbs  derived  from  them,  should  also 
begin  with  capitals. 

Catholic,  Protestant,  Papist,  Episcopalian,  Unitarian,  Trini- 
tarian, Universalist,  Baptist,  Mahometan,  Jew,  Brahman,  etc. 

Papal  and  Episcopal  (where  referring  directly  to  the  Episcopal 
Church,  or  the  Church  of  Kome),  Judaize,  Christianize. 

Whig,  Tory,  Federalist,  Democrat,  Kepublican,  Free-Soiler. 
—  In  France,  the  Left,  the  Right.  —  In  England,  the  Ministry, 
the  Opposition,  Conservative,  Liberal. 

11.  State,   Commonwealth,    etc.,  where  referring  to 

one  of  the  United    States,   should  be  capitalized ;  but 

not  when  referring  generally  to  a  foreign  state.     Also 

Province,  Colony,  etc. 

The  States  of  the  Union,  Commonwealth  of  Kentucky,  Ply- 
mouth Colony,  the  State  of  New  York,  the  states  of  Europe. 

1 2.  Words  used  to  indicate  the  Bible  directly  should 
be  capitalized ;  as,  the  Scriptures,  Scripture,  the  Gospel, 
etc.     Also,  the  Gospels,  the  Epistles,  the  Church,  etc. 


CAPITALS.  47 

13.  lu  printing  titles  of  books,  pictures,  or  newspa- 
pers, subheadings,  contents  of  chapters,  tables  of  con- 
tents, etc.,  the  first  word  and  every  noun  should  be 
capitalized,  and  also  other  important  words. ^ 

14.  Names  of  things  personified,  and  of  special  impor- 
tant things,  events,  or  bodies  of  men,  may  be  capitalized. 

Upon  this,  Fancy  began  again  to  bestir  herself. 

Come,  gentle  Spring,  ethereal  mildness,  come  ! 

The  Reformation,  the  Renaissance,  the  Middle  Ages,  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence,  the  Constitution,  the  Bill  of  Rights, 
Magna  Charta,  the  Fathers  (of  the  Church),  the  Apostles,  etc. 

15.  In  Botany  and  Zoology  the  names  of  Classes, 
Families,  and  Genera  are  always  capitalized ;  the  names 
of  species  are  written  with  a  small  initial,  unless  formed 
from  a  proper  name,  when  they  are  capitalized.  Where 
specific  names  occur,  they  are  usually  preceded  by  the 
generic  name,  and  followed  by  the  authority  for  the 
name,  when  both  names  should  be  in  Italic,  and  a 
comma  placed  before  the  authority.^ 

Botany.     Magnolia  grandifiora,  Linn.     (Magnolia.) 
Viola  Canadensis,  Linn.     (Violet.) 
Abies  alba,  Michx.     (White  Spruce.) 

ZoOlogy.    Turdus  migratorius,  lAnn.     (Robin.) 
Salmo  fontinalis,  Mitch.     (Trout,) 
Pa-pilio  asterias,  Drury.      (Butterfly,) 
Homarus  Americanus,  De  Kay.     (Lobster.) 

16.  In  works  treating  of  special  subjects,  important 
words  may  be  capitalized  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  or 
other  purpose.     But  this  is  a  matter  of  taste  and  judg- 

1  A  style  has  sprung  \ip  lately  of  printing  catalogues  without 
capitals,  —  sometimes  even  words  which  would  be  printed  with  a 
capital  if  occurring  in  any  other  place.  No  advantage  wliatever  is 
gained  by  this,  and  the  common  practice  is  altogether  the  best. 

2  Some  writers  in  Zoology  never  capitalize  the  specific  name 
where  it  is  derived  from  a  proper  name ;  others  capitalize  it  when 
derived  from  a  person,  but  not  when  it  is  a  geographical  name. 


48  ITALICS. 

ment.     Capitals  should  be  employed  sparingly,  how- 
ever, or  the  whole  object  of  their  use  will  be  defeated. 

17.  In  official  publications  by  a  city,  town,  club,  or 
other  association,  the  word  City,  Club,  etc.,  indicating 
the  body  publishing  the  work,  should  be  capitalized. 

18.  Three  lines  drawn  under  a  letter  or  word,  in 
manuscript,  show  that  it  is  to  be  printed  in  CAPI- 
TALS ;  two,  in  small  capitals  ;  one,  in  Italics. 

II.    Italics. 

1.  All  words  from  foreign  languages  written  with 
our  alphabet  should  be  italicized  whenever  they  occur 
in  an  English  sentence.  But  the  common  Latin  abbre- 
viations e.  g.,  i.  e.,  etc.,  viz.,  are  usually  printed  in 
Roman.  When  quotations  are  made  from  a  foreign 
language,  it  is  better  to  use  quotation  marks,  and  print 
in  Eoman. 

2.  The  titles  of  books,  pictures,  etc.  are  sometimes 
printed  in  Italics,  but  quotation  marks  are  better. 
Titles  of  books  in  foreign  languages,  however,  may 
very  properly  be  put  in  Italics,  if  not  quoted. 

3.  In  Botany  and  Zoology,  as  stated  above  (page  47), 
specific  names  should  always  be  printed  in  Italics  in  a 
Eoman  sentence. 

4.  Words  when  spoken  of  by  name  should  be  in 
Italics ;  as,  the  adjective  good ;  the  pronoun  his ;  the 
verb  to  he. 

5.  In  algebraic  and  mathematical  works,  letters  used 
as  signs  are  better  printed  in  Italics,  whether  capital  or 
small.  In  references  to  plates  or  figures,  the  letters 
should  be  printed  in  the  text  to  correspond  with  the 
plate  or  figure  referred  to,  although  Italics  should  be 
used  where  script  letters  occur  in  the  plate. 


CITATIONS.  49 


CHAPTEE    VIII. 

CITATIONS  AND  ABBREVIATIONS. 

I.   Citations. 

1.  The  manner  of  citing  authorities  in  general  works, 
and  of  crediting  quotations  from  Scripture  or  making 
references  to  it,  as  well  as  the  style  of  citing  law  books 
and  reports,  varies  very  greatly.  The  most  common 
usage  is  here  given. 

2.  In  making  references  to  general  works,  the  first 
division,  whether  volume,  chapter,  book,  act,  or  part, 
should  be  in  Roman  numerals,  in  capitals;  the  others, 
in  Arabic  numerals,  unless  some  exceptional  division  is 
to  be  noted. 

Prescott's  Conquest  of  Mexico,  Vol.  I.  p.  360. 
Channing's  Works,  Vol.  III.  pp.  210-214. 
Hamlet,  Act  IV.  Sc.  2. 
Paradise  Lost,  Book  I.  line  10. 
Xenophon's  Anabasis,  VI.  8.  21. 

Bulletin  of  the  Zoological  Museum,  Vol.  VIII.  No.  10,  pp. 
220,  221,  Plate  III.  fig.  4. 

Wilson's  Punctuation,  Chap.  I.  Sect.  4,  Rule  II.  p.  147. 

3.  But  where  many  citations  occur,  they  may  be  put 

in  small  letters ;   and  if  necessary  to  abbreviate  still 

further,  the  volume  and  page  may  be  omitted  entirely. 

vol.  iii.  p.  360  ;  vol.  iv.  pp.  105,  106  ;  vol.  vi.  pp.  25-30. 
iii.  360  ;  iv.  105,  106  ;  vi.  25-30. 

4.  In  Scripture  references  put  the  chapter  in  Roman 
numerals,  in  smaU  letters,  and  the  verse  in  figures. 

Gen.  xiv.  10  ;  Psalm  cix,  4  ;  Acts  viii.  13  ;  1  Chron.  xxi,  28. 


50  ABBREVIATIONS. 

5.  Authorities  in  law  reports  are  priuted  very  vari- 
ously as  respects  abbreviation,  as  the  following  exam- 
ples show.  But  tliere  should  always  be  a  comma  be- 
tween the  author's  name  and  the  title  of  the  book,  unless 
the  name  is  put  in  the  possessive  case,  or  a  connecting 
particle  is  used. 

10  Mass.  Rep.  420  ;  10  Mass.  R.  420  ;  or  10  Mass.  420. 
1  Story  on  Const.  §  40  ;  1  Story,  Const.  §  40  ;  or  1  Story's 
Const.  §  40. 

1  Howard's  Rep.  46  ;  1  Howard,  46  ;  or  1  How.  46. 

6.  Where  the  last  word  of  a  title  is  abbreviated,  a 
comma  should  be  used  before  the  volume,  chapter,  or 
page  cited,  except  in  Scripture  references  and  in  law 
books,  where  it  is  generally  omitted. 

II.    Abbreviations. 

1.  Abbreviation  can  be  carried  to  almost  any  extent, 
and  it  is  impossible  to  give  any  special  rules  for  it. 
Every  technical  work  should  always  give  a  complete  list 
of  the  abbreviations  it  uses,  unless  generally  recognized. 

2.  In  narrative  matter  very  few  abbreviations  are  tol- 
erated in  English.  The  only  ones  universally  allowed 
are  common  titles  like  Mr.,  Messrs.,  Mrs.,  Dr.,  Hon., 
Et.  Hon.,  Eev.,  and  Et.  Eev.,  and  honorary  degrees  and 
titles  after  a  name,  or  initial  letters  indicating  member- 
ship of  a  society  ;  as,  LL.  D.,  D.  D.,  Esq.,  Kt.,  K.  C.  B., 
M.  P.,  S.  J.,  A.  A.  S.,  etc. 

3.  Military  titles,  when  frequently  occurring,  may 
be  properly  abbreviated,  and  also  the  title  Professor. 
Nothing  is  gained,  however,  by  abbreviating  titles  like 
Captain  or  Colonel,  although  in  lists  of  names  they 
may  be  abbreviated.  A  title  like  Professor  or  Major- 
General  should  not  be  written  in  full  when  only  initials 


ABBREVIATIONS.  61 

of  the  name  are  given,  (as  Professor  J.  S.  Smith,  Major- 
General  W.  T.  Sherman,)  but  should  be  abbreviated; 
otherwise  the  title  is  more  prominent  than  the  name. 

4.  Where  sovereigns  of  a  country  are  alluded  to  inci- 
dentally, the  name  is  usually  written  out  in  full ;  as, 
Henry  the  Eighth,  Louis  the  Sixteenth.  But  in  works 
where  such  names  occur  often,  they  may  be  written  with 
Eoman  numerals  ;  as,  Henry  VIII. ,  Louis  XVI. 

5.  In  writing  numbers  round  sums  are  usually  spelled 
out,  and  numbers  smaller  than  one  hundred  ;  but  where 
statistics  are  given,  figures  should  be  used,  however 
small  the  numbers  may  be.  Sums  of  money,  also,  are 
better  given  in  figures  where  odd  numbers  occur,  or 
where  dollars  and  cents  are  both  to  be  expressed,  as 
they  are  much  more  easily  apprehended. 

6.  In  abbreviating  two  separate  words  by  the  first 
letter  of  each  word,  each  letter  should  have  a  period 
after  it,  and  a  space  between  the  two  ;  as,  e.  g.  for  ex- 
empli gratia  ;  i.  e.  for  id  est;  U.  S.  for  United  States; 
A.  M.  [Artium  Afagister),  for  Master  of  Arts. 

7.  In  abbreviating  measures  of  capacity,  weight,  dis- 
tance, or  time,  it  is  unnecessary  to  add  an  s  for  the 
plural ;  as,  gal.  for  gallon  or  gallons  ;  lb.  for  pound  or 
pounds ;  m.  for  mile  or  miles  ;  yr.  for  year  or  years. 

8.  iN'amcs  like  Sam,  Ben,  Bob,  etc.  must  not  be  taken 
for  abbreviations,  as  they  are  merely  nicknames. 

9.  The  following  list  contains  only  such  abbreviations 
as  are  in  general  use,  or  such  as  occur  in  standard  Eng- 
lish literature  and  may  not  be  generally  known,  or  such 
as  are  sometimes  incorrectly  abbreviated.  Where  the 
abbreviation  usually  occurs  with  a  small  letter  only,  it 
is  so  given  in  the  list. 

10.  For  the  proper  manner  of  writing  dates,  see  page 
19,  and  note. 


52 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


ABBREVIATIONS  USED  IN  PRINTING. 


A.  A.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  American 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

A.  A.  S.  S.,  Member  of  tlie  Amer- 
ican Antiquarian  Society. 

A.  B.  or  B.  A.,  Baclielor  of  Arts. 

A.  B.  C.  F.  M.,  American  Board 
of  Commissioners  for  Foreign 
Missions. 

Abp.,  Archbishop. 

A.  C,  before  (ante)  Christ. 

Acct.,  Account. 

A.  D.,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord. 

ad  lib.  {ad  libitum),  at  pleasure. 

Adjt.,  Adjutant. 

Adjt.-Gen.,  Adjutant-General. 

^t.  or  set.,  of  age,  aged. 

A.  H.,  in  the  year  of  the  Hegira. 

Ala.,  Alabama. 

Alex.,  Alexander. 

A.  M.,  in  the  year  of  the  world. 

A.  M.,  Master  of  Arts. 

A.  M.  or  a.  m.  {ante  meridiem), 
before  noon,  morning. 

And.,  Andrew. 

Anon.,  Anonymous. 

Ans.,  Answer. 

Anth.,  Anthony. 

Apoc,  Apocalypse. 

Arch.,  Archibald. 

Ark.,  Arkansas. 

Art.,  Article. 

Ar.  Ter.,  Arizona  Territory. 

Atty.-Gen.,  Attorney-General. 

A.  U.  A.,  American  Unitarian 
Association. 

A.  U.  C.  {anno  urbis  conditai),  in 
the  year  of  the  building  of  the 
city  (Rome). 

Aug.,  August;  Augustus. 

B.  A.  or  A.  B.,  Bachelor  of  Arts. 
B.  A.,  British  America. 

Bar.,  Baruch. 
Bart.,  Baronet. 


bbl.,  barrel, barrels. 
B.  C,  Before  Christ. 
B.  C.  L.,  Bachelor  of  Civil  Law. 
B.  D.,  Bachelor  of  Divinity. 
Bds.  or  bds..  Boards  (bound  in). 
Benj.,  Benjamin. 
B.  M.,  Bachelor  of  Medicine. 
Bp.,  Bishop. 

Br.  Col.,  British  Columbia. 
Brig. -Gen.,  Brigadier-General. 
Bro.,  Brother.     Bros.,  Brothers. 
B.  S.,  Bachelor  of  Surgery. 
B.  S.,  Bachelor  of  Science. 
B.  U.,  Brown  University, 
bu.,  bushel,  bushels. 
B.  V.     {Beata    Virgo),    Blessed 
Virgin. 

B.  V.  (bene  vale),  Farewell. 
Cal.,  California. 

Can.,  Canada. 

Cant.,  Canticles,  or  Song  of  Solo- 
mon. 
Cap.  {caput),  Chapter. 
Caps.,  Capitals. 
Capt.,  Captain. 
Capt.-Gen.,  Captain-General. 
Cath.,  Catherine. 

C.  B.,  Cape  Breton. 

C.  B.,  Companion  of  the  Bath. 

C.  E.,  Canada  East  (Quebec). 

C.  E.,  Civil  Engineer. 

C.  or  Cent.,  Centigrade  (ther- 
mometer). 

Cf.  {confer),  Compare. 

C.  H.,  Court-House. 

Ch.  or  Chap.,  Chapter,  Chapters. 

Chas.,  Charles. 

Chron.,  Chronicles. 

C.  J.,  Chief  Justice. 

C.  M.  G.,  Companion  of  the  Order 
of  St.  Michael  and  St.  George. 

Co.,  Company ;  County. 

C.  0.  D.,  Collect  on  delivery. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


53 


Col.,  Colonel;  Colossians. 
Col.,  Colorado. 
Coll.,  College. 

Com.,  Commander,  Commodore. 
Comp.,  Compare. 
Conn.,  Connecticut. 
Cor.,  Corinthians. 
C.  P.,  Common  Pleas. 
Crim.    Con.,    criminal    conversa- 
tion, adultery, 
ct.,  cent,  cents. 
cub.  ft.,  cubic  feet, 
cub.  in.,  cubic  inches. 

C.  W.,  Canada  West  (Ontario), 
cwt.,  hundred-weight. 

d.,  days;  pence. 

Dan.,  Daniel. 

Dart.,  Dartmouth  College. 

D.  C.  {da  capo),  Repeat. 
D.  C,  District  of  Columbia. 
D.  C.  L.,  Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 
D.  D.,  Doctor  of  Divinity. 
Dea.,  Deacon. 

Dec,  December. 

dec,  declination. 

deg.,  degree,  degrees. 

Del.,  Delaware. 

Del.  (Delineavil),  He  drew  it. 

Dele,  S,  Erase.  Used  in  correct- 
ing proofs. 

D.  F.,  Defender  of  the  Faith. 

D.  G.  {Dei  gratia),  by  the  grace 
of  God. 

D.  G.  {Deo  gratias),  thanks  to 
God. 

Dist.-Atty. ,  District- Attorney. 

D.  M.,  Doctor  of  Music. 

do.  (ditto),  the  same. 

Dr.,  Debtor;  Doctor. 

D.  Sc,  Doctor  of  Science. 

D.  T.  (Doctor  Theologia),  Doctor 
of  Divinity. 

D.  Ter.,  Dakota  Territory. 

D.  V.  (Deo  volente),  God  willing. 

dwt.,  pennyweights. 


E.,  East;  London  Postal  District.! 

Eben.,  Ebenezer. 

E.   C,     East    Central    (London 

Postal  District).! 
EccL,  Ecclesiastes. 
Ecclus.,  Ecclesiasticus. 
Ed.,  Editor.     Eds.,  Editors, 
ed.  or  edit.,  edition. 
Edm.,  Edmund. 
Edw.,  Edward. 
E.  E.,  Errors  excepted, 
e.  g.  (exemjjti  gratia),  for  example. 
E.  I.,  East  Indies. 
E.  I.  C,  East  India  Company. 
E.  I.  C.  S.,  East  India  Company's 

service. 
Eliz.,  Elizabeth. 
E.  N.  E.,  East-northeast. 
Eph.,  Ephesians ;  Ephraim. 
Esd.,  Esdras. 

E.  S.  E.,  JJast-southeast. 

Esq.,  Esquire.     Esqs.,  Esquires. 
Esth.,  Esther. 

et  al.  (et  alibi),  and  elsewhere. 
et  al.  (et  alii),  and  others, 
et  seq.    (et  sequentia),    and    fol- 
lowing, 
etc.  or  &c.(et  ccetera),  and  so  forth. 
Ex.,  Example. 
Exc,  Exception. 
Exod.  or  Ex.,  Exodus. 
Ez.,  Ezra. 
Ezek.,  Ezekiel. 
F.,  Fahr.,  Fahrenheit  (thermom.). 

F.  A.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Antiqua- 
rian Society. 

fatli.,  fatliom,  fathoms. 
F.  B.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Botanical 
Society. 

1  Loudon  is  divided  into  ten  postal 
districts;  two  central,  called  East 
Central  aud  West  Central,  iu  the 
heart  of  the  city,  and  the  other  eight 
radiating  from  the  centre,  and  named 
from  the  points  of  the  compass,  N., 
N.  E.,  E.,  etc. 


54 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


Feb.,  February. 

F.  E.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Entomo- 
logical Societj'. 
F.  G.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Geological 

Society. 
F.  H.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Horticul- 
tural Society. 
Fig.,  Figure,  Figures. 
Fla.,  Florida. 
F.  L.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Linnaean 

Society. 
F.  M.,  Field-Marshal, 
fol.,  folio,  folios. 
Fran.,  Francis. 
F.  R.  A.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal 

Astronomical  Society'. 
F.  R.  C.  P.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal 

College  of  Physicians. 
F.  R.  C.  S.,  Feflow  of  the  Royal 

College  of  Surgery. 
Fred.,  Frederic. 
F.  R.  G.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal 

Geographical  Society. 
F.   R.   S.,    Fellow  of   the   Royal 

Society. 
F.  R.  S.A.,  Fellow  of  the  Ro3'al 

Society  of  Arts. 
F.  R.  S.'e.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal 

Society,  Edinburgh. 
F.  R.  S.'l.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal 

Society-,  London. 
F.  S.  A.,  Fellow  of  the  Society  of 

Antiquaries. 
F.  S.  A.  E.,  Fellow  of  the  Society 

of  Antiquaries,  Edinburgh. 
ft.,  foot,  feet. 
Ft.,  Fort, 
fur.,  furlong,  furlongs. 

F.  Z.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Zoological 
Society. 

Ga.,  Georgia. 
Gal.,  Galatians. 
gal.,  gallon,  gallons. 

G.  C.  B.,   Knight  of  the    Grand 
Cross  of  the  Bath. 


G.  C.  H.,  Knight  of  the  Grand 

Cross  of  Hanover. 
G.  C.  M.  G.,  Knight  of  the  Grand 

Cross,  Order  of  St.  Michael  and 

St.  George. 
Gen.,  General ;  Genesis. 
Gent.,  Gentleman. 
Geo.,  George. 
Gov.,  Governor. 
Gov.-Gen.,  Governor- General. 
gr.,  grain,  grains;  gram, 
h.,  hour,  hours. 
Hab.,  Habakkuk. 
Hag.,  Haggai. 

H.  B.  C,  Hudson's  Bay  Company. 
H.  B.  M.,    His   or  Her  Britannic 

Majesty. 
Heb.,  Hebrews. 
H.  E.  I.  C,  Honorable  East  India 

Company. 
H.  E.  I.  C.  S.,    Honorable  East 

India  Company's  service, 
hhd.,  hogshead,  hogsheads. 
H.  M.,  His  or  Her  Majesty. 
Hon.,  Honorable. 
IIos.,  Hosea. 

H.  R.  H.,  His  Royal  Highness. 
H.  U.,  Harvard  University, 
ib.  or  ibid,  (ibidem),  in  the  same 

place, 
id.  (idem),  the  same. 
Id.  Ter.,  Idaho  Territory, 
i.  e.  (id  est),  that  is. 
I.  H.  S.   (Jesus  hominum   Salva- 

tor),  Jesus,  the  Saviour  of  men. 
111.,  Illinois. 

incog.  (inco(/nito),  unknown. 
Ind.,  Indiana. 
Ind.  Ter.,  Indian  Territory. 
in  loc.  (in  loco),  in  the  place. 
Insp.-Gen.,  Inspector-General, 
inst.,  instant,  the  present  month, 
lo.,  Iowa. 
I.  0.  0.  F.,  Independent  Order  ol 

Odd  Fellows. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


55 


Isa.,  Isaiah. 

Jac,  Jacob. 

Jam.,  Jamaica. 

Jan.,  January. 

Jas.,  James. 

J.  C.  D.    [Juris   Ctvilts  Doctor), 

Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 
Jer.,  Jeremiali. 
J.  H.  S.  (Jesus  hominum  Salva- 

tor),  Jesus,  the  Saviour  of  men. 
Jona.,  Jonathan. 
Jos.,  Joseph. 
Josh.,  Joshua. 
J.  P.,  Justice  of  the  Peace. 
J.  Prob.,  Judge  of  Probate. 
Jr.  or  Jun.,  Junior. 
J.  U.  D.  {Juris  utriusque  Doctor), 

Doctor  of  both   Laws    (of  the 

Canon  and  the  Civil  Law). 
Jud.,  Judith. 
Judg.,  Judges. 
Kan.,  Kansas. 
K.  B.,  King's  Bench. 
K.  B.,  Knight  of  the  Bath. 
K.  C.  B.,  Knight  Commander  of 

the  Bath. 
K.  C  H.,  Knight  Commander  of 

Hanover. 
K.  C.  M.  G.,  Knight  Commander 

of  Order  of  St.  Michael  and  St. 

George. 
K.  G.,  Knight  of  the  Garter. 
K.  G.  C,    Knight  of  the   Grand 

Cross. 
K.  G.  C.  B.,  Knight  of  the  Grand 

Cross  of  the  Bath. 
K.  J.,  Knight  of  St.  Joachim. 
K.  L.  H.,  Knight  of  the  Legion  of 

Honor. 
K.  M.,  Knight  of  Malta. 
K.  P.,  Knight  of  St.  Patrick. 
K.  S.  M.  &  S.  G.,  Knight  of  St. 

Michael  and  St.  George. 
K.  T..  Knight  of  the  Thistle. 
Kt.,  Knight. 


Ky.,  Kentucky. 

L.,  £,  or  I.,  pounds  sterling. 

La.,  Louisiana. 

Lam.,  Lamentations. 

Lat.,  latitude. 

lb.  or  lb   (libra  or  librcB),  pound 

or  pounds  in  weight. 
L.  C,  Lord  Chancellor. 
L.  C,  Lower  Canada  (Quebec). 
Lev.,  Leviticus. 
L.  I.,  Long  Island. 
Lib.  (Liber),  Book. 
Lieut.,  Lieutenant. 
Lieut. -Col.,  Lieutenant-Colonel. 
Lieut.-Gen.,  Lieutenant-General. 
Lieut.-Gov.,  Lieutenant-Governor, 
lit.,  literally. 

LL.  B.,  Bachelor  of  Laws. 
LL.  D.,  Doctor  of  Laws. 
Lon.  or  Long.,  longitude. 
L.  S.   (locus  siyilli),  place  of  the 

seal. 
L.  or  £.  s.  d.,  pounds,  shillings, 

pence. 
LXX.,  the  Septuagint  (version  of 

the  Old  Testament). 
M.  or  Mons.,  Monsieur. 
m.,  miles;  minutes. 
j\L  (meridies),  noon. 
M.  A.,  Master  of  Arts. 
Mace,  or  Mac,  Maccabees. 
Mad.,  Madam. 
Mag.,  Magazine. 
Maj.-Gen.,  Major-General. 
Mai.,  Malachi. 
Man.,  Manasses  (book  of). 
Man.,  Manitoba  (B.  A.). 
Mass.,  Massachusetts. 
Matt,  or  Mat.,  Matthew. 
M.  B  ,  Bachelor  of  Medicine. 
M.  C,  Member  of  Congress. 
M.  C.  Z.,  Museum  of  Comparative 

Zoology  (Cambridge). 
M.  D.  (MediciiKB  Doctor),  Doctor 

of  Medicine. 


56 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


Md.,  Maryland. 

iVie.,  Maine. 

Mem.,  Memorandum,  Memo- 
randa. 

Messrs.,  Messieurs,  Gentlemen. 

Mic,  Micah. 

Mgr.,  Monseigneur. 

Mich.,  Michigan. 

Minn.,  Minnesota. 

Miss.,  Mississippi. 

Mile.,  Mademoiselle. 

MM.,  Messieurs,  Gentlemen. 

Mme.,  Madame. 

M.  M.  S.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Medical  Society. 

Mo.,  Missouri. 

mo.,  month,  months. 

Mons.,  Monsieur. 

M.  P.,  Member  of  Parliament. 

Mr.,  Mister. 

M.  R.,  Master  of  the  Rolls. 

M.  R.  A.  S.,  Member  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society. 

M.  R.  C.  S.,  Member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons. 

M.  R.  I.,  Member  of  the  Royal 
Institution. 

M.  R.  I.  A.,  Member  of  the  Royal 
Irish  Academj'. 

Mrs.,  Mistress. 

MS.,  Manuscript. 

MSS.,  Manuscripts. 

Mt.,  Mount  or  mountain. 

Mts.,  mountains. 

M.  Ter.,  Montana  Territory. 

Mus.  B.,  Bachelor  of  Music. 

Mus.  D.,  Doctor  of  Music. 

N.,  North  ;  London  Postal  Dist. 

N.  A.,  North  America. 

N.  A.,  National  Academy  of  De- 
sign (America). 

Nah.,  Nahum. 

Nath.,  Nathaniel. 

N.  B.,  New  Brunswick. 

N.  B.,  North  Britain  (Scotland). 


N.  B.  {Nota  bene),  Mark  well. 

N.  C,  North  Carolina. 

N.  E.,  New  England. 

N.  E.,  Northeast  (London  P.  D.). 

Neb.,  Nebraska. 

Neh.,  Nehemiah. 

nem.  con.  or  nem.  diss,  {nemine 
contradicente  or  nemine  dissen- 
tiente),  no  one  opposing. 

Nev.,  Nevada. 

N.  F.,  Newfoundland. 

N.  H.,  New  Hampshire. 

N.  J.,  New  Jersey. 

N.  lat..  North  latitude. 

N.  M.,  New  Mexico. 

N.  N.  E.,  North-northeast. 

N.  N.  W.,  North-northwest. 

N.  O.,  New  Orleans. 

No.,  Number.     Nos.,  Numbers. 

Not.  pros,  (nolle  prosequi)  indi- 
cates in  law  that  a  complaint 
will  not  be  prosecuted. 

Nov.,  November. 

N.  S.,  New  Style. 

N.  S.,  Nova  Scotia. 

N.  T.,  New  Testament. 

Num.,  Numbers. 

N.W.,  Northwest;  London  P.  D. 

N.  Y.,  New  York. 

O.,  Ohio. 

Obad.,  Obadiah. 

Obs.,  Observation. 

Oct.,  October. 

Out.,  Ontario  (Upper  Canada). 

Or.,  Oregon. 

O.  S.,  Old  Style. 

O.  T.,  Old  Testament. 

Oxon.  (Oxonia,  Oxonii),  Oxford. 

oz.,  ounce,  ounces. 

P.  or  p.,  page. 

P.  C,  Privy  Councillor. 

P.  D.,  Postal  District  (London). 

P.  E.  I.,  Prince  Edward  Island. 

Penn.,  Pennsylvania. 

per  ct.,  by  the  hundred. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


57 


Pet.,  Peter. 

P.  D.  or  Ph.  D.  (Philosophias  Doc- 
tor), Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

Phil.,  Philip;  Philippians. 

Philem.,  Philemon. 

Pinx.  (Pinxit),  He  painted  it. 

pk.,  peck,  pecks. 

PI.,  Plate,  Plates. 

P.  M.,  Postmaster. 

P.  M.  or  p.  ra.  (post  mendiem), 
afternoon,  evening. 

P.  M.  G.,  Postmaster-General. 

P.  O.,  Post-Office. 

Pop.,  Population. 

Pp.  or  pp..  Pages. 

P.  P.  C.  (Pour  prendre  conge),  to 
take  leave. 

Pref.,  Preface. 

Pres.,  President. 

Prof.,  Professor. 

Pro  tern,  (pro  tempore),  for  the 
time  being. 

Prov.,  Proverbs. 

prox.  (proximo),  the  next  month. 

P.  S.  ( post  scriptum).  Postscript. 

Ps.,  Psalm,  Psalms. 

pt.,  pint,  pints. 

pwt.,  pennyweight,  pennyweights. 

Q.,  Question. 

Q.  E.  D.  (  Quod  erat  demonstran- 
dum), which  was  to  be  proved. 

q.  s.  (quantum  sufficit),  a  suffi- 
cient quantity. 

qt.,  quart,  quarts. 

q.  V.  {quod  vide),  which  see. 

Qu.  or  Qy.,  Query. 

Que.,  Quebec  (Lower  Canada). 

R.,  5  (Recipe),  take. 

R.  A.,  Royal  Academician. 

R.  A.,  Russian  America. 

rd.,  rods;  roods. 

R.  E.,  Royal  Engineers. 

R.,  Reaum.,  Reaumur  (thermom.). 

Regt.,  Regiment. 

Rem.,  Remark,  Remarks. 


Rep.,  Reports. 

Rev.,  Reverend;  Revelation. 

R.  I.,  Rhode  Island. 

R.  M.,  Royal  Marines. 

R.  N.,  Royal  Navy. 

Rom.,  Romans. 

R.  R.,  Railroad. 

R.  S.  A.,  Royal  Scottish  Acade- 
mician. 

R.  S.  S.  (Regice  Sodetatis  Socius), 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

Rt.  Hon.,  Right  Honorable. 

Rt.  Rev.,  Right  Reverend. 

S.,  South;  London  P.  D.  ;  Saint. 

s.,  seconds;  shillings. 

S.  A.,  South  America. 

Sam.,  Samuel. 

S.  B.,  Bachelor  in  Science. 

S.  C.  (in  law),  same  case. 

S.  C,  South  Carolina. 

sc.  or  scil.  (scilicet),  namely. 

S.  caps.,  Small  capitals. 

Sculp.  (Scidpsit),  He  engraved. 

S.  E.,  Southeast;  London  P.  D. 

Schol.  (Scholium),  a  note. 

sec,  second,  seconds. 

Sec.  Leg.,  Secretary  of  Legation. 

Sect.,  Section,  Sections. 

Sept.,  September;  Septuagint. 

seq.  or  sq.  (sequente),  and  in 
what  follows. 

seqq.  or  sqq.  (sequentibus),  and 
in  the  following  (places). 

Ser.,  Series. 

Serg.,  Sergeant. 

Serg.-Maj.,  Sergeant-Ma jor. 

S.  H.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Historical 
Society. 

S.  J.,  Societ\'  of  Jesus. 

S.  J.  C,  Supreme  Judicial  Court- 

S.  lat..  South  latitude. 

S.  of  Sol.,  Song  of  Solomon. 

Sol.,  Solomon. 

Sol. -Gen.,  Solicitor-General. 

sp.  gr.,  specific  gravity. 


58 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


S.  P.  Q.  R-  (Se?(«<MS  Popnhisque 
Romnnus),  the  Senate  and  Ro- 
man people. 

sq.  ft.,  square  foot  or  feet. 

sq.  in.,  square  inch  or  inches. 

sq.  m.,  square  mile  or  miles. 

S.  R.  I-  (Sucnim  Romamim  Impe- 
rium),  the  holy  Roman  empire. 

S.  R.  S.  (Societalis  Reyim  Socius), 
Fellow  of  the  Roj'al  Society. 

SS.  (scilicet,  to  wit),  used  in  legal 
processes  after  County  or  judi- 
cial district  to  show  jurisdiction. 

S.  S.  E.,  South-southeast. 

S.  S.  W.,  South-southwest. 

St.,  Saint;  Street;  Strait. 

St.,  Stat.,  statute,  statutes. 

S.  T.  D.  (Scmctce  Theologice  Doc- 
tor), Doctor  of  Divinity. 

ster.,  sterling. 

Slet,  Let  it  stand,  used  in  proof  or 
MS.  to  restore  what  is  erased. 

Supt.,  Superintendent. 

Surg.-Gen.,  Surgeon-General. 

Surv.-Gen.,  Surveyor-General. 

Sus.,  Susannah. 

S.  W.,  Southwest;  London  P.  D. 

T.,  ton,  tons;  tun,  tuns. 

Tenn.,  Tennessee. 

Ter.,  Territory. 

Te.K.,  Texas. 

Theo.,  Theodore. 

Theoph.,  Theophilus. 

Thess.,  Thessalonians. 

Thos.,  Thomas. 

Tim.,  Timothy. 

Tit.,  Titus;  (titulus)  Title. 

Tob.,  Tobit. 

Tom.,  Tome,  Tomes. 

Tr.,  Translator;  Transpose. 

Tr.,  Trustee.     Trs.,  Trustees. 

Treas.,  Treasurer. 

U.  C,  Upper  Canada  (Onfariol. 

U.  E.  I.  C,  United  East  India 
Company. 


U.  .J.  C.  (Uti-iitsque  Juris  Doctor), 
Doctor  of  both  Laws. 

ult.  {ultimo),  the  last  month. 

U.  K.,  United  Kingdom. 

Univ.,  University. 

U.  S.  or  U.  S.  A.,  United  States 
of  America. 

U.  S.  A.,  United  States  .A.rm3'. 

U.  S.  M.,  United  States  Mail. 

U.  S.  N.,  United  States  Navy. 

ut  sup.  {zit  supra),  as  above. 

U.  Ter.,  Utah  Territory. 

v.,  vs.  (versus),  against. 

Va.,  Virginia. 

V.  C,  Vice-chancellor. 

V.  D.  M.,  Preacher  of  the  Word. 

Ver.,  Verse,  Verses. 

Vice-Pres.  or  V.-Pres.,  Vice-Pres- 
ident. 

vid.  (vide),  see. 

viz.  (videlicet),  to  wit,  namely. 

Vol.,  Volume.     Vols.,  Volumes. 

Vt.,  Vermont. 

W.,  West;  London  Postal  Dist. 

Wash.,  Washington. 

W.   C,    West  Central   (Londoa 
Postal  District). 

W.  I.,  West  Indies. 

Wis.,  Wisconsin. 

Wisd.,  Wisdom  of  Solomon. 

wk.,  week,  weeks. 

W.  Ion.,  West  longitude. 

Wm.,  William. 

W.  N.  W.,  West-northwest. 

W.  S.,  Writer  to  the  Signet. 

W.  S.  W.,  West-southwest. 

W.  Ter.,  Washington  Territory. 

Wy.  Ter.,  Wyoming  Territory. 

W.  Va.,  West  Virginia. 

Xmas.,  Christmas. 

Y.  C,  Yale  College. 

3'd.,  yard,  yards. 

y.  or  yr.,  j'ear,  years. 

Zech.,  Zechariab. 

Zeph.,  Zephaniah. 


THE  HYPHEN.  59 


CHAPTER    IX. 

THE  HYPHEN.— COMPOUND  WORDS.— 
SYLLABICATION. 

I.    The  Hyphen. 

1.  The  hyphen  is  used  between  compound  words 
which  have  not  by  usage  become  single  words,  and 
where  words  are  necessarily  divided  at  the  end  of  a 
line.  In  dictionaries  and  spelling-books  the  hyphen 
is  used  between  the  syllables  of  words  to  aid  in  show- 
ing the  proper  pronunciation. 

2.  The  hyphen  is  frequently  used  where  a  prefix 
ending  with  a  vowel  is  united  with  a  word  beginning 
with  the  same  vowel,  to  show  that  the  two  vowels  are 
to  be  pronounced  separately,  or  where  a  prefix  before  a 
consonant  makes  a  word  of  similar  form  with  another 
of  a  different  signification ;  as,  co-operate,  co-ordinate, 
pre-exist,  re-examine,^  re-creation,  re-collect,  re-formation. 

II.    Compound  Words. 

1.  Words  should  not  be  compounded  where  separate 
words  will  convey  the  signification  just  as  well ;  and 
separate  simple  words  should  always  be  united  in  one 

1  The  cliseresis  mark  is  sometimes  used  over  the  second  letter  in 
these  cases,  and  the  hyphen  omitted.  But  the  hyphen  is  preferable. 
The  diaeresis,  however,  is  used  where,  in  words  not  compound,  the 
vowel  0  is  doubled,  and  pronounced  as  two  syllables;  as,  Laocodn, 
epizootic,  zoology,  zoophyte. 


60  COMPOUND  WORDS. 

when  tlley  are  in  common  use,  and  when  the  words 
themselves  are  accented  as  single  simple  words. 

2.  In  conformity  with  this  principle,  the  number  of 
words  originally  compounded,  or  written  as  two  words, 
which  are  now  commonly  written  as  one,  is  large  and 
constantly  increasing ;  as, 

railroad,  steamboat,  slaveholder,  byword,  anything,  anybody, 
everything,  everybody,-  roughhew,  heartache,  raindrop,  teardrop, 
nowadays,  forever,  forevermore, 

3.  On  the  other  hand,  many  words  which  are  now 
frequently  seen  compounded,  or  written  as  two  words, 
may  be  found  written  as  one  in  Spenser,  Shakespeare, 
Milton,  and  other  old  authors ;  as, 

wellnigh,  erelong,  bygone,  alehouse,  schoolboy,  spellbound, 
awestruck,  downtrodden,  selfsame. 

4.  Where  a  noun  is  used  as  an  adjective,  a  useless 
compound  word  should  not  be  made  ;  as, 

mountain  top,  Sunday  school,  supper  table,  slave  trade,  coffee 
trade,  minute  hand,  multiplication  table,  journeyman  printer, 
peasant  woman,  cabbage  leaf,  sister  city,  brother  minister. 

5.  The  following  adjectives  and  nouns,  as  well  as 

many  others,  are  sometimes  uselessly  compounded  :  — 

common  law,  law  merchant,  common  sense,  ill  health,  good 
will,  free  will,  grand  jury,  North  American  (Review),  New  York 
(Directory),  South  Boston  (Bridge),  Washington  Street  (omnibus). 

1  Some  authorities  write  anybody  and  everybody  as  single  words, 
but  make  two  of  anything  and  everything.  There  seems  to  be  no 
reason  for  this,  and  the  following  sentences  show  its  awkwardness. 

"  He  was  eminent  for  a  supreme,  well-bred  contempt  for  every- 
body and  everything.''  —  Bulwer,  Kenelm  Chillingly,  Chap.  11. 

"  I  remember  that  I  am  not  here  as  a  censor  either  of  manners  or 
morals,  and  therefore  cannot  undertake  to  scourge  anything  or  any- 
body."—i2.  O.  White,  Every-Day  English,  p.  109. 

Many  people  even  go  so  far  now  as  to  write  any  one  and  every  one 
as  single  words.  But  these  are  just  as  distinctly  pronounced  and 
accented  as  two  words  as  any  man  and  every  man. 


COMPOUND  WORDS.  61 

Also  phrases  like  the  following :  — 

good  by,  good  morning,  ever  to  be  remembered  (event),  well 
laid  out  (grounds),  long  looked  for  (return),  inside  out,  uncalled 
for  (remarks),  by  and  by,  attorney  at  law,  tlie  pulling  down,  the 
carrying  away,  the  blotting  out,  etc. 

"  Proud  setter  icp  and  liuller  down  of  kings."  —  3  Hen.  VI. 

Using  hyphens  between  these  words  adds  nothing  to 
the  clearness  of  the  expression. 

6.  The  following  directions  are  given  for  certain 
classes  of  words,  which  will  assist  the  printer  or  teacher 
in  carrying  out  the  above  general  principles. 

a.  Titles  like  the  following  are  compounded  :  ex-president, 
ex-governor,  rear-admiral,  vice-president,  vice-chancellor ;  but 
viceroy,  vicegerent,  are  written  as  single  words.  Titles  like  the 
following  are  sometimes  compounded,  but  it  is  better  to  write 
them  as  separate  woi'ds:  chief  justice,  attorney  general,  major 
general,  lieutenant  colonel,  second  lieutenant,  etc. 

b.  The  following  words  expressing  kindred  are  compounded  : 
step-father,  step-mother,  etc.,  great-grandfather,  great-grandson, 
etc.,  great-aunt  or  grand-aunt,  grand-nephew,  etc.  The  follow- 
ing are  sometimes  needlessly  compounded  :  father  in  law,  daughter 
in  law,  foster  brother,  cousin  german,  second  cousin,  etc. 

c.  The  following  pomts  of  the  compass  should  be  written  as 
single  words :  northeast,  northwest,  southeast,  southwest ;  hut 
north-northeast,  west-southwest,  etc, 

d.  Fractions  like  the  following,  when  written  out,  should  not 
be  compounded  :  one  half,  two  thirds,  five  eighths,  ten  thou- 
sandths. But  another  class  of  fractions  are  compounded  as 
follows:  one  twenty-fifth,  forty-nine  fiftieths,  ninety-nine  hun- 
dredths, thirteen  ten-thousandths,  etc.  Numbers  like  the  follow- 
ing are  also  compounded:  twenty-five,  forty-nine,  twenty-fifth, 
forty-second,  etc. 

e.  Compounds  of  half  or  quarter  like  the  following  are  always 
printed  with  a  hyphen  :  half-dollar,  half-crown,  half-bai-rel,  half- 
way, half-past,  half-witted,  half-yearly,  half-price,  quarter-barrel, 
quarter-day,  quarter-deck,  quarter-face,  etc. ;  hut  quartermaster. 

/.  The  words  fold,  score,  penny,  and  pence,  united  with  num- 
bers of  one  syllable,  are  written  as  single  words  ;  but  with  num- 


62  COMPOUND  WORDS. 

bers  of  more  than  one  syllable  they  are  compounded  or  written 
separately  :  twofold,  tenfold,  twenty-fold,  a  hundred-fold,  two 
hundred-fold ;  fourscore,  twenty  score,  a  hundred  score  ;  half- 
penny, twopenny,  tenpenny,  halfpence,  fourpence,  tenpence, 
fifteen-penny,  fifteen  pence. 

g.  Ordinal  numbers  compounded  with  the  words  rate  and 
hand  are  usually  written  with  a  hyphen  ;  as,  first-rate,  fifth-rate ; 
second-hand,  fourth-hand,  etc. 

h.  Numerals  of  one  syllable  are  compounded  with  words 
of  various  meaning,  which  explain  themselves :  one-eyed,  one- 
armed,  two-handed,  two-lieaded,  three-legged,  four-story,  four- 
footed,  etc.  Numerals  are  also  combined  with  a  noun  to  form 
an  adjective  as  follows:  two-foot  rule,  ten-mile  run,  one-horse 
chaise,  twenty- foot  pole,  etc. 

i.  Compound  nouns  ending  with  man  or  ivoman  are  written 
as  one  word ;  as.  Englishman,  workman,  oysterraan,  goodman ; 
needlewoman.  Frenchwoman,  marketwoman,  etc. 

j.  Compounds  ending  with  holder,  monger,  are  usually  written 
as  one  word  ;  as,  bondholder,  stockholder,  landholder,  slavehold- 
er; boroughmonger,  cheesemonger,  ironmonger. 

k.  Compounds  ending  with  boat,  book,  drop,  light,  house, 
rooin,  side,  or  yard  are  made  single  words  if  the  first  part  of  the 
compound  is  of  only  one  syllable,  but  are  joined  by  a  hyphen 
if  it  is  of  more  than  one;  as,  longboat,  sailboat,  canal-boat; 
handbook,  daybook,  commonplace-book ;  dewdrop,  raindrop, 
water-drop ;  daylight,  sunlight,  candle-light ;  alehouse,  boathouse, 
warehouse,  greenhouse,  meeting-house,  dwelling-house;^  bed- 
room, greenroom,  {also  anteroom,)  dining-room,  dressing-room; 
bedside,  fireside,  hillside,  river-side,  mountain-side ;  churchyard, 
farmyard,  courtyard,  timber-yard,  marble-yard. 

I.  Compounds  ending  with  work  are  usually  written  as  sin- 
gle words,  imless  the  combination  is  unusual ;  as,  groundwork, 
network,  framework,  needlework,  brickwork,  ironwork,  stonework ; 
but  mason-work,  carpenter-work. 

m.  The  word  tree  is  often  compounded  with  the  name  of  the 
species  ;  as,  apple-tree  ;  but  the  words  are  as  well  separated. 

n.  Compounds  beginning  with  eije  are  written  as  one  word  ; 
as,  eyelash,  eyebrow,  eyeglass,  eyewitness. 

1  Town-house  and  Court-house  are  usually  compounded,  and 
State  House  written  as  two  words. 


COMPOUND   WORDS.  63 

0.  Compounds  beginning  with  school  are  written  as  one  word, 
except  when  made  with  a  participle  (school-bred,  school-teaching) ; 
as,  schoolboy,  schoolmate,  schoolfellow,  schoolmaster,  schoolmis- 
tress,  schooldame,  schoolhouse ;  but  school  days,  school  district, 
school  committee,  school  teacher,  school  children,  etc.  should  be 
made  separate  words. 

p.  The  word  fellow  is  used  in  the  formation  of  compound 
nouns,  which  explain  themselves,  and  frequently  have  the 
hyphen;  as,  fellow-studeut,  fellow-man,  etc.  But  they  are 
now  more  commonly  printed  as  separate  words. 

q.  Compounds  of  a  noun  in  the  possessive  case  with  another 
noun,  and  having  a  peculiar  signification,  are  not  unfrequeut ; 
as,  bird's-eye,  king's-e\al,  crow's-nest,  bear's-foot,  jew's-harp, 
etc.  But  many  like  words  have  become  consolidated;  as,  bees- 
wax, ratsbane,  townspeople,  etc. 

r.  Compounds  of  a  present  participle  with  a  noun  or  adjec- 
tive are  generally  connected  by  the  hyphen ;  as,  printing-office, 
dining-table,  composing-room ;  good-looking,  cloud-compelling, 
etc.  In  a  few  pages  of  Shakespeare's  "  Comedy  of  Errors  "  occur 
the  following  compounds  of  this  class:  "always  wind-obeying 
deep,"  "well-dealing  countrymen,"  "dark-working  sorceress," 
"soul-killing  witches,"  "fool-begged  patience,"  "sap-consuming 
winter." 

s.  Compounds  of  colors.  Expressions  like  brownish  yellow 
or  yellowish  white  are  not  compounded.  But  where  a  noun  is 
used  with  an  adjective  expressing  color,  the  words  should  be 
written  with  a  hyphen ;  as,  lemon-yellow,  iron-gray,  iron-red, 
silver-gray,  emerald-green ;  also,  red-hot. 

t.  The  word  self  is  united  with  innumerable  words  of  various 
parts  of  speech,  forming  compounds  which  are  self-explaining. 
The  hyphen  is  used  in  all  words  beginning  with  self,  excepting 
selfhood,  selfsame,  and  selfish  with  its  derivatives.  Self  is  also 
compounded  with  pronouns  as  a  termination,  and  the  compound 
written  as  one  word ;  as,  himself,  myself,  itself,  etc.  Some  writ- 
ers use  oneself  for  one's  self,  but  its  use  is  not  well  established. 

u.  Compounds  ending  with  like  are  written  as  one  word,  un- 
less derived  from  a  proper  name,  or  unusual  combinations,  when 
they  are  written  with  a  hyphen ;  as,  childlike,  lifelike,  womanlike, 
workmanlike,  fislilike;  Argus-like,  Bedouiu-like,  business-like, 
miniature-like, 


64  COMPOUND   WORDS. 

V.  Numberless  compound  personal  epithets  are  in  constant 
use,  which  are  usually  written  with  a  hyphen  and  explain  them- 
selves; as,  light-haired,  blue-eyed,  sharp-nosed,  broad-shoul- 
dered, l^long-legged,  etc. 

w.  Compound  words  made  from  the  prefixes  over,  under,  after, 
out,  cross,  or  coimter,  with  a  noun  or  adjective  of  one  syllable,  or 
with  an  adverb,  or  a  verb,  or  word  formed  directly  from  a  verb 
thus  made,  should  be  written  as  single  words ;  as,  overabound, 
overabundant,  overestimate,  underclothes,  underbrush,  under- 
taker, afterpiece,  outlook,  outpoiir,  crossexamine,  crossquestion, 
countercharm,  countermarch.  Nouns  and  adjectives  of  more 
than  one  syllable  when  thus  compounded  are  usually  written 
with  a  hyphen,  unless  formed  directly  from  a  verb  thus  made ; 
as,  under-current,  under-master,  counter-current,  counter-motion, 
over-issue,  over-jealous,  over-frequent.  But  this  does  not  always 
follow,  as  we  have  undergraduate  and  some  other  words.  Many 
of  these  compounds  given  in  the  dictionaries  would  be  much 
better  written  as  separate  words;  as,  under  lip,  over  anxious, 
over  cunning,  over  burdensome,  after  age,  after  part,  cross  sec- 
tion, cross  reference,  counter  revolution,  counter  influence. 

X.  Compounds  made  from  prefixes  like  demi,  semi,  non,  stib, 
inter,  intro,  intra,  extra,  etc.,  are  written  as  one  word  in  most 
cases ;  but  where  the  compound  is  unusual,  a  hyphen  is  used. 
For  the  prefixes  co,  pre,  and  re,  see  page  59.  2. 

y.  Compounds  beginning  with  deutero,  electro,  pseudo,  sulpho, 
thermo,  and  similar  terminations,  are  often  made,  and  when  they 
come  into  general  use  are  written  as  single  words,  although  usage 
is  unsettled ;  as,  electromagnetism,  electromotive,  pseudonym. 
If  the  compound  is  uncommon,  the  hyphen  may  be  used. 

z.  Compounds  of  adverbs,  like  above,  ill,  well,  so,  with  a  parti- 
ciple or  participial  adjective,  to  form  an  epithet,  are  often  written 
with  a  hyplien  when  they  precede  the  noun  they  qualify,  but  not 
otherwise;  as,  "the  well-known  author,"  " the  so-called  spell- 
ing reform,"  "this  ill-advised  proceeding,"  " the  above-named 
parties."  But  it  is  quite  as  well  to  write  them  separately. 
—  Compound  adverbs  are  always  written  as  single  words ;  as, 
moreover,  meanwhile,  awhile,  meantime,  everywhere,  anywhere, 
forever,  forevermore. 

7.  From  the.  foregoing  directions  and  examples  the 
general  principles  of  the  proper  compounding  of  words 


COMPOUND   WORDS.  65 

may  be  seen.  Hyphens  should  never  be  used  between 
words  when  the  same  words  separately  will  just  as  well 
express  the  meaning. 

8.  On  the  other  hand,  many  compound  words  gener- 
ally written  as  one,  or  with  a  hyphen,  may  be  used  in 
such  a  way  as  to  require  their  being  written  separately. 
Thus  the  whole  class  of  compound  adverbs  and  parti- 
ciples, as  stated  above  (under  2),  even  if  written  with 
a  hyphen  before  a  noun  which  they  qualify,  require  to 
be  separated  when  written  after  it.  Meantime,  mean- 
while, awhile,  as  adverbs,  are  made  single  words  ;  but  in 
the  phrases  "  in  the  mean  time,"  "  in  the  mean  while," 
"  after  a  while,"  they  should  be  separated. 

9.  So,  many  other  words  generally  written  as  one 
require  to  be  separated  when  used  in  an  unusual  sense. 
A  few  examples  of  some  of  these  are  given,  as  illus- 
trations. 

"In  every  thing  and  event  to  perceive  the  present  loving  en- 
ergy of  the  Heavenly  Father."  —  IF.  E.  Channing. 

"  And  to  ascend  for  ever  and  ever  in  immortal  love."  —  Ibid, 

"  With  his  mouth  full  of  news."  —  As  You  Like  It. 

"These  were  the  palmy  days  of  light  houses  and  heavy  gas- 
bills."  —  John  Brougham. 

A  glasshouse  is  a  place  where  glass  is  made ;  a  glass  house  is  a 
house  made  of  glass. 

A  blackbird  is  a  species  of  oriole  ;  but  a  crow  is  a  black  bird. 

A  sharp-edged  instrument  is  not  a  sharp  edged  instrument. 

10.  So,  many  words  of  various  endings  are  written  as 
one  word  if  the  compound  makes  but  two  syllables,  but 
with  a  hyphen  if  of  more  than  two.     (See  above,  1%  w.) 

11.  Where  any  awkward  collocation  of  letters  in  a 
compound  occurs,  or  the  doubling  of  a  letter,  or  where 
the  compound  is  made  with  an  uncommon  word  or 
with  a  proper  name,  the  hyphen  may  be  used,  even 
"where  it  conflicts  with  the  foregoing  rules. 


66  SYLLABICATION. 

12.  Many  authors  may  prefer  to  use  the  hyphen  in 
some  of  the  cases  where  the  rules  would  dispense  with 
it ;  and  of  course  its  use  is  a  matter  of  taste,  as  much  as 
of  custom.  Wherever  any  doubt  would  arise  as  to  the 
meaning  of  a  compound  phrase,  the  hyphen  should  be 
used. 

III.    Syllabication. 

Syllabication  is  important  to  the  comj30sitor  and 
proof-reader,  as  showing  the  proper  manner  of  dividing 
words  at  the  end  of  a  line,  and  also  to  teachers  and 
their  pupils,  as  an  indispensable  auxiliary  to  the  proper 
pronunciation  of  words.  In  dictionaries,  the  division 
into  syllables  is  made  mainly  for  the  purpose  of  show- 
ing the  pronunciation. 

It  is  the  practice  in  printing  the  classical  and  the 
modern  European  languages  always  to  divide  between 
a  vowel  and  tlie  following  consonant,  or  any  combina- 
tion of  consonants  which  can  begin  a  word  and  conse- 
quently be  pronounced  in  combination,  whether  the 
vowel  is  short  or  long.  But  the  prevailing  practice 
in  English  is  to  divide  words  into  syllables  according 
to  their  correct  pronunciation,  as  near  as  may  be ; 
regard  being  also  had  to  the  formation  of  the  word, 
and  to  prefixes  and  terminations. 

Neither  of  our  American  Dictionaries  is  consistent 
with  itself,  and  both  are,  I  believe,  wrong  in  many  of 
their  divisions.  For  example,  both  divide  woman  and 
all  its  derivatives,  in  giving  the  words  in  the  vocabu- 
lary, after  the  m,  whereas  according  either  to  forma- 
tion or  pronunciation,  it  should  be  divided  wo-man,  as 
the  VI  belongs  as  much  to  the  second  syllable  as  the 
first.  So  of  the  word  trouble,  although  both  divide  be- 
tween the  6  and  I,  while  no  one  would  ever  think  of 


SYLLABICATION.  67 

doing  so  unless  he  took  the  Dictionary  as  authority,  as 
the  b  is  sounded  as  rauch  on  one  syllable  as  the  other, 
and  Worcester  gives  as  the  correct  pronunciation  truh-hl. 
It  is  evident,  following  the  analogy  of  all  kindred  lan- 
guages, that  the  proper  syllables  of  these  words  are 
where  they  would  naturally  be  made ;  i.  e.  troti-ble  and 
wo-man.  Indeed,  on  the  page  in  \Vorcester  where 
woman  and  its  compounds  occur,  the  word  is  actually 
divided  at  the  end  of  the  line  four  times  after  the  o, 
and  only  once  after  the  m ;  and  on  the  page  in  Web- 
ster where  the  words  are  given,  the  only  time  it  is  di- 
vided at  the  end  of  the  line  it  is  divided  wo-man. 

Again,  the  word  fortune  is  divided  by  both  Diction- 
aries fort-une,  while  the  same  word  is  given  in  Latin, 
French,  Spanish,  and  Italian,  in  neither  one  of  which 
languages  would  it  ever  be  divided  as  they  divide  it ; 
and  in  Webster  it  is  divided  four  times  (the  only  cases 
in  which  it  occurs  at  the  end  of  a  line)  for-tune,  as  it 
undoubtedly  should  be.  Nature  also  is  divided  by  both 
Dictionaries  nat-ure,  although  the  great  majority  of  au- 
thorities divide  it  na-iure,  as  it  certainly  should  be.  It 
may  be  said  that  these  divisions  of  the  Dictionaries  bet- 
ter show  the  correct  pronunciation.  But  this  is  not 
so, 'as  the  t/  sound  after  t  is  the  sound  properly  belong- 
ing to  the  u,  as  laid  down  in  all  the  dictionaries  and 
grammars. 

There  are  many  discrepancies  between  our  Diction- 
aries, and  many  inconsistencies  in  botli,  which  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  proper  syllabication  was  not  much 
attended  to,  and  perhaps  was  not  considered  of  impor- 
tance. But  it  is  a  very  serious  matter  to  compositors, 
if  to  no  one  else,  as  they  have  to  re-space  two  lines  in 
order  to  change  a  letter  from  one  line  to  another. 


68  SYLLABICATION. 

The  following  rules,  which  are  based  on  the  old 
English  system,  with  the  examples  given  under  them,' 
will  show  the  proper  way  of  dividing  words  in  all 
cases  where  any  doubt  is  likely  to  exist. 

KULBS. 

1.  Every  vowel  or  diphthong  which  is  sounded  con- 
stitutes a  sejDarate  syllable  ;  as, 

li-on,  cru-el,  com-pres-si-bil-i-ty,  nia-tu-ri-ty,  me-di-ate,i  re- 
af-firm,  re-en-ter,  lead-er,  gen-er-os-i-ty,  pei-ceive,  a-me-U-o-rate,i 
a-nem-o-ne,  An-ax-ag-o-ras. 

2.  Where  a  single  consonant,  or  consonant  digraph,'' 

comes  between  two  vowels,   or  between   a   diphthong 

and  a  vowel,  the  consonant  or  consonant  combination 

should  be  joined  with  the  first  vowel  if  short;  but  with 

the  last,  if  the  first  one  is  long,  or  unaccented,^  except 

as  qualified  by  the  rules  hereafter  given, 

ri-val,  riv-er,  hab-it,  de-cis-ion,  o-pin-ion,  de-stro)',  crea-ture, 
na-ture,  Goth-ic,  hatch-et,  or-a-to-ri-al,  or-a-tor-i-cal,  o-ra-tion, 
ne-glect,  re-press,  vis-ion,  sai-lor,  tai-lor,  meas-ure,  pleas-ure. 

3.  Where   two    consonants   not   forming  a   digraph 

come  together  between  two  vowels,  or  a  diphthong  and 

a  vowel,  the  consonants  must  be  divided ;  as, 

af-ter,  car-pet,  o-ri-eu-tal,  mil-lion,  bril-liant,  con-ver-sion, 
for-tune,  scrip-ture,  pic-ture,  for-mer,  fac-tor,  mus-ter,  pas-ture, 
blan-ket,  ad-jec-tive,  per-cep-ti-ble,  moun-tain,  Chiis-tian,  as-ses- 
sor,  sta-tis-tics,  pro-tec-tor,  chan-ces,  chan-ges,  re-hear-sal,  prot- 
es-tant,  is-land  ;  hut  fa-ther,  pro-phet-ic,  fish-er-man. 

4.  Where  three  or  more  consonants  come  between 

1  The  final  italic  e's  in  these  words  are  silent. 

2  A  digraph  consists  of  two  letters  having  a  single  sound;  as  ch  in 
church;  th  in  thin;  sh  in  shot.  The  rule  includes  cases  of  three  or 
more  letters  pronounced  as  one;  as,  tch  in  hatchet;  str  in  destroy,  etc. 

8  By  unaccented  vowels  are  meant  those  unmarked  in  Web8t«r, 
and  those  marked  as  obscure  in  Worcester. 


SYLLABICATION.  69 

two  vowels,  or  a  diphthong  aud  a  vowel,  the  first  of 
"which  is  short,  all  of  them  which  can  be  pronounced 
together,  except  the  first,  go  with  the  latter  syllable  ;  as, 
chil-dren,  tech-ni-cal,  part-ner,  twin-kle,  twin-kling,  chuc- 
kle, chuc-kling,  trem-ble,  trem-bling,  con-juiic-ture,  an-thra-cite, 
e-lec-tri-ci-ty,  ful-cmm,  frus-trate,  in-struc-tress,  ac-tress,  pam- 
phlet-eer,  in-kling,  at-mos-phere,  pic-kle,  tic-kler,  pe-des-tri-an, 
match-less,  tians-gres-sor. 

5.  In  all  cases  of  doubtful  pronunciation,  or  where 
the  exact  pronunciation  cannot  be  given,  divide  upon 

the  vowel ;  as, 

pre-de-ces-sor,  not  pred-e-ces-sor,  pro-duct,  not  prod-uct,  me- 
moir, not  mem-oir,  dou-ble,  trou-ble,  colo-nel,  busi-ness,  wo-man, 
wo-men,  pro-gvess,  fic-ti-tious. 

6.  The  c  ov  g  should  never  be  separated  from  the  fol- 
lowing e,  i,  or  y  on  which  its  soft  sound  depends ;  as, 

ne-ces-sa-ry,  ca-pa-ci-ty,  re-joi-cing,  pre-ju-di-ces,  sui'-ging, 
sur-ges,  chan-ging,  chan-ges,  re-li-gious,  re-li-gion. 

7.  As  the  letter  x  never  begins  a  word  in  English,  it 
cannot  begin  a  syllable ;  and  as  J  never  ends  a  word, 
it  should  not  end  a  syllable.  Likewise,  as  q  never  oc- 
curs in  English  without  u  following,  it  must  never  be 
divided  from  the  7i ;  as, 

ma-jes-ty,  pre-ju-dice ;  an-ti-qui-ty,  li-quid,  li-que-fy,  li-qui- 
date,  re-qui-si-tion, 

8.  The  participial  terminations  en  and  ing,  and  ed- 
when  it  makes  an  additional  syllable,  as  well  as  the 
comparative  er,  the  superlative  est,  and  the  plural  es, 
should  always  be  made  separate  syllables,  except  where, 
according  to  the  rules  of  orthography  (see  p.  71,  Rule 
II.),  the  preceding  consonant  is  doubled,  or  where  they 
are  preceded  by  c  ox  g  soft ;  as, 

rat-ing,  rat-ed ;  a-bat-ing,  a-bat-ed  ;  a-bound-ing,  a-bound-ed ; 
bvok-en,  break-ing  ;  tak-en,  tak-iug  ;  stroug,  strong-er,  strong- 
est ;  gross,  gross-er,  gross-est ;  brave,  brav-er,  brav-est ;  box-es, 


70  .  SYLLABICATION. 

hors-es,  vers-es ;  hut  for-cing,  em-bra-cing,  char-ging,  char-ges, 
voi-ces  ;  hot-ter,  hot-test,  ad-rait-ting,  ad-mit-ted. 

9.  The  termination  e?',  when  added  to  a  verb  ending 

with  a  consonant  or  a  silent  e  to  form  a  noun,  is  always 

made  a  separate  syllable  ;  but  the  termination  or  is  not 

so  separated ;  as, 

bak-er,  mak-er,  be-liev-er,  com-mand-er,  form-er,  tres-pass-er, 
work-er ;  ac-tor,  gov-er-nor,  con-fes-sor,  pro-tec-tor,  op-er-a-tor. 

10.  All  terminations  beginning  with  a  vowel  added 

to  a  word  ending  with  a  consonant  or  silent  e  should 

be  separated  from  the  word  in  dividing,  if  the  position 

of  the  accent  and  pronunciation  of  the  primitive  word 

remain  unchanged  ;  as, 

de-pend-ence,  as-sist-ant,  com-mend-able,  re-tro-spect-ive,  pro- 
gress-ive,  in-struct-ive,  con-sist-eiit,  as-sur-ance,  ob-serv-ance, 
art-ist,  re-vers-i-ble,  con-form-i-ty,  ab-surd-i-ty,  pa-tri-arch-al. 

11.  This  principle  must  not  be  carried  so  far,  how- 
ever, as  to  include  nouns  or  other  words  in  common 
use,  which  perhaps  are  as  near  primitives  as  the  words 
from  which  they  appear  to  be  derived.  Such  words 
should  follow  the  general  rules,  as  in  the  following 
examples :  — 

ser-vant,  ser-vice,  rehear-sal,  nniver-sal,  for-mal,  for-mer,  ob- 
ser-vatory,  consis-tory,  iudepen-dence,  rec-tangle,  acciden-tal, 
ac-tive,  adjec-tive,  matu-rity,  stan-dard,  guar-dian. 

12.  Whenever  a  primitive  word  ending  with  a  con- 
sonant takes  a  termination,  beginning  with  a  vowel, 
which  is  also  an  accented  syllable,  or  where  the  place 
of  the  accent  is  changed,  the  consonant  must  go  with 
the  termination ;  as, 

syste-matic,  hut  system-atize ;  enien-dation,  emen-dator,  lut 
emend-able,  emend-atory ;  labyrin-thiue,  ar-tis-tic. 


RULES  OF  ORTHOGRAPHY.  71 


CHAPTER    X. 

RULES  OF  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Although  the  spelling  of  English  words  seems  to  be 
very  irregular  and  arbitrary,  a  knowledge  of  the  follow- 
ing general  principles  will  enable  one  in  most  cases 
to  decide  at  once  upon  the  proper  spelling  of  a  word. 
The  exceptional  words  will  be  found  fewer  than  is  gen- 
erally supposed.  The  omission  of  useless  silent  let- 
ters has  been  very  marked  within  the  past  fifty  years, 
and  will  undoubtedly  be  as  noticeable  during  the  next 
half-century. 

I.   Monosyllables. 

1.  Monosyllables  ending  with  /,  I,  or  5,  preceded  by  a  single 
vowel,  double  the  final  letter;  as,  staff,  mill,  pass.  The  only 
important  exceptions  are  clef,  if,  of;  bid,  nul,  sal,  sol;  as,  gas, 
has,  toas,  yes,  gris,  his,  is,  this,  pus,  thus,  us. 

2.  Monosyllables  ending  in  any  other  consonant  than  /,  I, 
or  s  do  not  double  the  final  letter.  The  only  common  excep- 
tions are  abb,  ebb,  add,  odd,  bigg,  egg,  mumm  (to  mask),  inn, 
bunn,  err,  burr,  purr,  mitt,  butt,  fizz,  fuzz,  buzz. 

3.  A  consonant  at  the  end  of  a  word  immediately  after  a 
diphthong  or  double  vowel  is  not  doubled  ;  except  in  the  word 
gv^ss. 

II.  Doubling  Final  Consonants. 
1.  Monosyllables  and  words  accented  on  the  last  syllable 
ending  with  a  single  consonant  (except  h  or  x)  preceded  by  a 
single  vowel,  or  by  qu  and  a  vowel,  double  the  final  consonant 
before  an  additional  termination  beginning  with  a  vowel,  whether 
a  syllable  is  added  or  not;  as,  rob,  robbed,  robber,  robbing;  re- 
gret, regretting,  regretted;  foi^,  foppish,  foppery :  commit,  commit' 
tal,  committing,  committed,  committer;  thin,  thinner,  thinnest. 


72 


RULES  OF  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


squat,  squatter,  squatting;  quit,  quitted,  quitting.  Except  that, 
when  the  place  of  the  accent  is  changed,  the  final  consonant 
is  not  doubled  ;  as,  refer',  reference,  referable;  prefer',  prefer- 
ence, preferable. 

2.  A  final  consonant  when  it  is  preceded  by  a  diphthong  or 
by  two  vowels,  or  when  the  accent  is  not  on  the  last  syllable,  is 
not  doubled  on  assuming  an  additional  termination  ;  as,  oil,  oil- 
ing, oily;  brief,  briefer,  briefest;  real,  realize,  realist;  benefit, 
benefiting,  benefited;  equal,  equalize,  equality. 

3.  An  important  exception  to  this  rule  exists,  by  general 
usage,  in  regard  to  words  ending  in  el,  in  which  I  is  usually 
doubled  on  taking  an  additional  termination  beginning  with  a 
vowel,  excepting  only  in  the  word  novelist  and  the  derivatives 
of  parallel,  as  paralleled,  paralleling,  U7iparalleled.  Also  the 
preterites,  participles,  and  verbal  nouns  ending  in  al,  il,  or  ol. 
The  following  list  comprises  all  the  verbs  which  double  the  final 
I  on  taking  an  additional  syllable  :  — 


apparel 

drivel 

imperil 

parcel 

shovel 

bevel 

duel 

jewel 

pencil 

shrivel 

bowel 

embowel 

kennel 

peril 

snivel 

cancel 

enamel 

label 

pistol 

tassel 

carol 

empanel 

level 

pommel 

trammel 

cavil 

equal 

libel 

quarrel 

travel 

channel 

gambol 

marshal 

ravel 

tunnel 

chisel 

gravel 

marvel 

revel 

unravel 

counsel 

grovel 

model 

rival 

vial 

cudgel 

handsel 

panel 

rowel 

victual 

dishevel 

hatchel 

4.  Other  common  exceptions  to  the  rule  are  nmiplus,  humbug, 
periwig,  zigzag,  comproynit,  carburet  and  similar  chemical  terms 
ending  in  uret,  kidnap,  and  worship,  which  double  the  last  letter 
before  an  addition,  and  also  the  word  woollen  from  wool. 

5.  The  reason  given  for  doubling  in  all  these  cases  is  to  pre- 
vent mispronunciation,  which  seems  to  be  a  valid  one.  Webster, 
however,  allows  none  of  these  exceptions  to  the  rule,  except  in 
the  derivatives  of  humbug,  periwig,  zigzag,  and  compromit. 

III.   "Words  ending  with  a  Double  Letter. 
1.  Words  ending  with  any  double  letter  preserve  it  double 
before  any  added  termination  not  beginning  with  the  same  letter. 


RULES  OF  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


73 


and  in  all  derivatives  formed  by  means  of  prefixes ;  as,  wooer, 
seeing,  agreeable,  stillness,  blissful ;  recall,  depress,  foresee. 

2.  Except  instalment,  inthralment,  thraldom,  enrolment,  dul- 
ness,  fulness,  skilful,  skilfully,  wilful,  wilfully,  and  words  derived 
ixom.  pontiff',  aspontifc.  Also,  withal,  therewithal,  wherewithal, 
until,  twibil,  as  well  as  distil,  fulfil,  and  instil,  with  their  deriv- 
atives. Webster,  however,  doubles  the  I  in  all  these  words  but 
withal,  therewithal,  wherewithal,  until,  and  twibil. 

IV.  Final  c  or  ck. 

1.  Monosyllables  and  verbs  of  more  than  one  syllable  ending 
with  the  sound  of  k  take  always  ck  at  the  end ;  as,  black,  stick, 
knock,  attack.  The  only  exceptions  are  the  monosyllables  lac,  sac, 
talc,  zinc,  ploc,  roc,  soc,  arc,  marc,  ore,  and  fisc;  and  the  verbs 
frolic,  roUic,  mimic,  physic,  traffic,  havoc,  and  bivouac,  in  the 
present  tense.  But  when  these  verbs  assume  the  terminations 
er,  ed,  or  ing,  the  k  is  inserted  to  show  the  hard  sound;  as, 
frolic,  frolicking  ;  traffic,  trafficked,  trafficker. 

2.  Words  of  more  than  one  syllable  ending  in  ic  ot  iac  are 
written  without  the  k ;  as,  music,  critic,  maniac.  {Derrick  is  an 
exception.)  Words  of  more  than  one  syllable,  in  which  c  is  pre- 
ceded by  any  other  vowel  than  i  or  ia,  end  in  ck.  But  almanac, 
sandarac,  limbec,  xebec,  manioc,  and  havoc  are  exceptions. 

V.  Final  or  or  our. 

All  words  formerly  ending  in  our  with  the  u  unsounded  are 
now  spelled  invariably  in  America  or;  as,  honor,  labor,  governor. 
The  only  exception  is  the  word  Saviour,  referring  to  Jesus  Christ. 
But  in  England  the  u  is  retained  in  many  words  of  this  ending. 

VI.    Final  ise  or  ize. 

The  only  verbs  ending  with  the  sound  of  izc  which  are  now 
spelled  ise  (in  America)  are  the  following,  viz. :  — 


advertise 

advise 

affranchise 

apprise 

arise 

catechise 

chastise 

circumcise 


comprise 

compiomise 

criticise 

demise 

despise 

devise 

disfranchise 

disguise 


divertise 

enfranchise 

enterprise 

exercise 

exorcise 

improvise 

manumise 

merchandise 


misprise 

premise 

reprise 

revise 

rise 

supervise 

surmise 

surprise 


74  RULES  OF  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

VII.    Final  e. 

1.  Derivatives  from  words  ending  with  silent  e  after  a  conso- 
nant retain  the  e  when  the  termination  added  begins  with  a  con- 
sonant;  &s,  pale,  paleness ;  edge,  edgcless;  hate,  hateful;  chaste, 
chastely  ;  move,  inovement.  The  words  wholly,  nursling,  abridg- 
ment, acTcnowledgment,  judgment,  lodgment,  and  wisdom  are  the 
only  common  exceptions. 

2.  When  the  final  e  is  immediately  preceded  by  another  vowel 
(except  e  or  i),  it  is  generally  dropped  before  a  consonant;  as, 
true,  truly;  argue,  argument;  awe,  awful;  woe,  woful.  But 
the  e  is  retained  in  some  words  of  this  class  ;  as,  bluely,  blueness, 
trueness,  rueful,  shoeless,  eyeless. 

3.  Derivatives  from  words  ending  with  silent  e  omit  the  e 
when  the  termination  added  begins  with  a  vowel  (with  the  ex- 
ceptions given  below)  ;  as,  bride,  bridal;  guide,  guidance ;  use, 
usage  ;  force,  forcible ;  true,  truism  ;  sale,  salable  ;  eye,  eying  ; 
centre,  centring  ;  rule,  ruling.     Mileage  is  an  exception. 

4.  Words  ending  with  ce  or  ge  retain  the  e  before  words  be- 
ginning with  a  or  0  to  preserve  the  soft  sound  of  the  c  ov  g  ;  as, 
trace,  traceable ;  change,  changeable ;  courage,  courageous ;  out- 
rage, outrageous.  According  to  this  rule  mortgagcor  is  the  cor- 
rect spelling,  but  legal  usage  is  in  favor  of  mortgagor. 

5.  The  e  is  retained  in  hoeing,  shoeing,  and  toeing  ;  and  also 
in  the  words  dyeing,  singeing,  springeing,  swingeing,  and  tinge- 
ing,  to  distinguish  them  from  dying,  singing,  springing,  swing- 
ing, and  tinging. 

6.  Words  ending  with  ie  change  the  ie  to  y  on  taking  the 
additional  syllable  ing  ;  as,  die,  dying ;  hie,  hying ;  vie,  vying. 

VIII.    Final  y. 

1.  Words  ending  with  y  preceded  by  a  consonant  change  the 
y  into  i  before  any  termination  not  beginning  with  i ;  as,  con- 
trary, contrarily,  contrariness ;  icy,  iciest,  icily ;  merry,  merrier, 
merriest,  m.errily,  merriment ;  pity,  pitiful,  pitiless,  pitiable, 
pitied,  pitiest ;  spy,  spied,  spies. 

2.  Adjectives  of  one  syllables  ending  in  y  are  exceptions,  and 
retain  the  y ;  as,  sly,  slyer,  slyest,  slyly,  slyness ;  spry,  spryer, 
spryest,  spryly,  spryness ;  dry,  dryly,  dryness.  But  drier  and 
driest  are  usually  written  with  the  i. 

3.  Derivatives  of  words  ending  in  y  which  are  formed  by 


RULES  OF  ORTHOGRAPHY.  75 

adding  ship  are  also  exceptions  ;  as,  ladyship,  suretyship.     Also 
the  words  babyhood  and  ladykin. 

4.  Words  ending  witii  y,  preceded  by  a  vowel,  do  not  change 
the  y  before  an  added  termination  ;  as,  gay,  gaijety,  gayly,  gay- 
ness;  play,  player,  plmjfal,  playing.  The  word  daily  is  an  ex- 
ception, as  are  a  few  irregular  verbs,  like  said,  saith,  paid,  laid, 

IX.  TuE  Plural. 

1.  The  regular  plural  of  nouns  is  formed  by  the  addition  of 
s  to  the  singular;  as,  book,  books;  shoe,  shoes;  eye,  eyes;  straw, 
straws;  pen,  2}ens;  grape,  graiics:  horse,  horses;  voice,  voices. 

2.  If  the  singular  ends  with  s,  sh,  ch  soft,  or  x,  the  plural  is 
formed  by  the  addition  of  es;  as,  omnibus,  omnibuses;  mass, 
masses;  lash,  lashes;  church,  churches ;  fox,  foxes. 

3.  If  the  singular  ends  in  o  preceded  by  another  vowel,  the 
plural  is  formed  regularly  by  adding  s ;  as,  folio,  folios ;  cameo, 
cameos;  bamboo,  bamboos;  embryo,  embryos;  two,  twos. 

4.  If  the  singular  ends  with  o  preceded  by  a  consonant,  the 
plural  is  generally  formed  by  adding  es;  as,  echo,  echoes;  hero, 
heroes;  motto,  mottoes;  potato,  potatoes. 

5.  Proper  names  ending  in  o,  and  the  following  common 
nouns,  together  with  a  few  others  from  the  Italian  or  Spanish 
hardly  Anglicized,  form  the  plural  regularly  ;  as,  Neros,  albinos. 
albino  duodecimo  junto  octavo  quarto  solo 
canto  fresco  lasso  piano  rotundo  stiletto 
cento  grotto  limbo  proviso  salvo  torso 
domino       halo               memento     portico       sirocco         tyro 

6.  Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant  or  by  qu  form 
the  plural  by  changing  y  into  ies;  as,  lady,  ladies;  mercy,  mer- 
cies; body,  bodies;  colloquy,  colloquies.  But  if  the  y  is  preceded 
by  a  vowel,  s  only  is  added  for  the  plural;  as,  boy,  boys;  day, 
days  ;  valley,  valleys  ;  but  ay,  ayes.  Some  proper  names  ending  in 
y  simply  add  s  for  the  plural  ;  as,  Henry,  Henrys;   Tully,  Tullys. 

7.  The  third  person  singular  of  verbs  is  formed  in  accordance 
with  the  foregoing  rules  ;  as,  rides,  boxes,  marches,  woos,  goes,  buys. 

8.  The  following  nouns  ending  in/ or. /e  form  the  plural  by 
changing  the/ or /c  into  vcs,  viz.  beef,  calf,  elf,  half,  knife,  leaf, 
life,  loaf,  self  sheaf  shelf  wife,  wolf,  and  sometimes  wharf; 
as,  beeves,  knives,  wolves,  etc.  Staff  usually  is  written  staves  in 
the  plural.  All  other  nouns  ending  in  /,  fe,  orff  form  the  plural 
regularly;  as,  proof ,  proof s ;  strife,  strifes;  muff,  muffs,  etc. 


76  RULES  OF  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

9.  The  plural  of  the  following  words  is  made  by  changing  the 
vowel  sound  of  the  singular;  as,  man,  men;  woman,  women; 
brother,  brethren;  goose,  geese;  foot,  feet;  tooth,  teeth;  loitse,  lice; 
mouse,  mice.  Compounds  of  these  words  form  the  plural  in  the 
same  way  ;  as,  dormouse,  doi-mice;  foeman,foemen ;  countryman, 
countrymen.  But  the  syllable  man  at  the  end  of  a  word  must 
not  be  mistaken  for  a  compound  of  the  word  man;  as,  German, 
Germans;  Mussulman,  Mussulmans ;  talisman,  talismans.  The 
plural  of  ox  is  oxen  ;  of  child,  children. 

10.  Many  words  derived  from  the  classical  or  from  foreign  lan- 
guages retain  the  plural  form  of  the  language  from  which  they  are 
taken,  although  many  of  them  have  also  the  regular  English  plu- 
ral;  as,  crisis,  crises;  hypothesis,  hypotheses;  criterion,  criteria; 
mcmoranduni,  memoranda  or  m.emorandums ;  matrix,  matrices; 
focus,  foci;  formula,  formulae,  or  formulas;  larva,  larvce;  ap- 
pendix, ap)pendices  or  appendixes;  stigma,  stigmata  or  stigmas; 
genus,  genera  ;  beau,  beaux  or  beaus  ;  bandit,  banditti  or  bandits  ; 
cherub,  cliericbim  or  cherubs;  seraph,  seraphim  or  seraplis. 

X.    Possessive  Case. 

For  the  formation  of  the  Possessive  Case,  see  the  chapter  on 
the  Apostrophe,  page  37. 

The  following  list  contains  the  words  in  common  use 
spelled  differently  by  "Webster  and  Worcester,  excej^ting 
those  which  are  given  above,  words  variously  spelled  by 
other  authorities,  and  words  often  misspelled  without 
any  authority  whatever.  The  orthography  of  the  left- 
hand  column  is  that  considered  best  established,  except 
where  an  or  is  used,  when  both  are  considered  to  be 
well  authorized.  When  the  word  in  the  first  column 
is  unmarked,  both  Webster  and  Worcester  agree  in  the 
spelling  ;  when  marked  with  an  asterisk  (*),  it  indicates 
that  Worcester's  spelling  is  preferred  to  that  of  Web- 
ster ;  with  a  dagger  (t),  the  reverse  is  indicated,  and 
Webster's  spelling  preferred ;  the  double  dagger  {%)  in- 
dicates that  the  preferred  spelling  is  neither  Worcester's 
nor  Webster's,  but  is  most  in  accordance  with  usage. 


LIST  OF  WORDS  VARIOUSLY  SPELLED. 


77 


LIST  OF  WORDS  VARIOUSLY  SPELLED. 


Abbatis 

Abridgement 

Accessary 

Accompt,  -ant 

Accouter 

Acknowledgement 

Addable 

Adipocire 

Admittable 

Admittible 

Adz,t  Addice 

Edile 

Eolian 

Esthetics 

Agriculturalist 


Abatis 
_^bridgment 
Accessoryt 
Account,  -ant 
"Accoutre* 
Acknowledgment 
Addible 
Adipocere 

AdraissibleJ 

Adze* 

^dile 

Eolian 

^Esthetics 

Agriculturist 

Aide-de-camp*    Aid-de-camp 

Alchemy  Alchymy 

Alcoran  or  Koran  Alkoran 

Alloy  Allay 

Almanac  Almanack 

Alum  Allum 

Ambassador        Embassador 

Ambergris  Ambergrise 

Amortizef  Amortise 

Anapest 

Anemone 

Ankle 

Antechamber 

Antiemetic 

Apostasy 

Apothegm 

Appall 

Appalment* 

Appraise 

Arbitrament 

Archa!ology 

Arquebuse 

Arseniuretted* 

Artisan 

Asafoetidat 

Asbestos* 


(  Anapaest 


Anapaest 

Anemony 

Ancle 

Antichamber 

Antemetic 

Apostacy 

Apophthegm 

Appal 

Appallment 

Apprize 

Arbitrement 

Archeology 

Arquebus 

Arseniureted 

Artizan 

Assafoetida 

Asbestus 


Ascendent 

Ascendancy 

Assise 

Atheneum  f 

Athenaeum 

Otto,  Ottar 

Ought 

Autocrasy 

Averdupois 

Ax 


Ascendant! 
Ascendency 
Assize 

Athenaeum* 

Attar 
Aught 
Autocracy 
Avoirdupois 
Axe* 

Ay  (yes),  pi.  Ayes   Aye 

Bachelor  Batchelor 
Bade  {from  Bid)  Bad 

Baldrict  Baldrick 

Balk  Baulk 

Baluster  Banister 

Bandanna*  Bandana 

Banian*  Banyan 

Banst  Banns 

Barberry  Berberrj' 
Bark,  a  small  boat. 
Barque,  a  ship  of  a  certain  rig. 

Barouche  Barouch 

Baryta  Baryte 

Barytone  Baritone 

Basin  Bason 

Bass  Base 

Bateau  Batteau 

Battledoor  Battledore 

Bawble,  or  Bauble 

Bazaar  Bazar 

Befall  Befal 

Behoove  Behove 

Beldam  Beldame 

BenzolJ:  Benzole 

Bequeath  Bequeathe 

Berth  (Nav.)  Birth 

Bestrew  Bestrow 

Betel  Betle 

Bevel  Bevil 

Bezant  Byzant 

Biased,  -ingt  Biassed,  -ing 


78 


LIST  OF  WORDS  VARIOUSLY  SPELLED. 


Blende  (Min.) 

Blithesome,  -ly 

Blonde 

Bodice 

Boil 

Bombazette* 

Bombazine 

Bonapartist 

Bourgeois 

Bourn 

Bourse 

Bowlder,  or 

Brand-new 

Brazen 

Brazier 

Brier 

Brooch 

Bryony 

Buccaneer 

Buhrstone 

Bunn* 

Burden 

Burin 

Burnoust 

Burr* 

But-end 

By,  ra. 

CiEsura 

Calcareous 

Caldron 

Calendar 

Calends 

Caliber 

Calipasht 

Calipeet 

Calipers 

Caliph 

Calk 

Calligraphy 

Calyx 

Camlet 

Camomile 

Camphene 

Camphor 

Cannoneer 


Blend 

Blithsome,  -Ij' 

Blond 

Boddice 

Bile 

Bombazet 

Bombasine 

Buonapartist 

Burgeois 

Borne,  Bourne 

Burse 

Boulder 

Bran-new 

Brasen 

Brasier 

Briar 

Broach,  Broche 

Briony 

Buccanier 

Burrstoue 

Bun 

Burthen 

Burine 

Burnoose 

Bur 

Butt-end 

Bye 

Cesura,  Caesura 

Calcarious 

Cauldron 

Kalendar 

Kalends 

Calibre 

Callipash 

Callipee 

Callipers 

Calif,  Kaliph 

Caulk 

Caligraphy 

Calix 

Camblet 

Chamomile 

Camphine 

Camphire 

Cannonier 


Canon 

Canyon 

Canvas  (cloth) 

Canvass 

Canvass,  v. 

Canvas. 

Carbinet 

Carabine 

Carat 

Caract,  Carrat 

Caravansary 

(  Caravansera 
(  Caravanserai 

Carburetted* 

Carbureted 

Carcass 

Carcase 

Carnelian 

Cornelian 

Cassava 

Casava,  Cassavi 

Cassimere 

Kerseymere 

Caste  (a  class) 

Cast 

Catchpoll 

Catchpole 

Catchup  ) 
Ketchup  ) 

Catsup 

Cauliflower 

Colliflower 

Ceiling 

Cieling 

Centiped 

Centipede 

Centre* 

Center 

Cesspool 

Sesspool 

Chalcedony 

Calcedony 

Chameleon 

Cameleon 

Chamois 

Shamois 

Champagne,  a 

wine. 

Champaign,  Jlat,  open  country. 

Chant 

Chaunt 

Chap  ijaw) 

Chop 

Chase 

Chace 

Check 

Cheque 

Checker 

Chequer 

Chemical 

Chymical 

Chemistry 

Chymistry 

Chestnut 

Chesnut 

Chintz 

Chints 

Choir 

Quire 

Choke 

Choak 

Choose 

Chuse 

Choret 

Char,  Chare 

Chorister 

Quirister 

Cigar 

Segar 

Cimitar 

Cimeter 

Cymetar 

Scyraitar* 

Scimetar 

Scimitar 

LIST  OF   WORDS   VARIOUSLY  SPELLED. 


79 


Cipher 

Clarinet* 

Clew,  or 

CUnch 

Cloak 

ClodpoU 

Clothe 

Clyster 

Cobbler 

Coif 

Coke 

Colander 

Colic 

Collie  {dog) 

Colliery 

Complete 

Complexion 

Confectionery 

Confidant,  m. 

Confidante,  f. 

Conjurer 

Connection 

Connoisseur 

Consecrator 

Contemporary 

Contradance 

Control 

Controller 

Conversable 

Cony 

Cooliet 

Copier 

Copse 

Coquette,  n. 

Corbel 

Correlative 

Cosey* 

Cot  ' 

Cotillon 

Coultei-J 


Cypher 

Clarionet 

Clue 

Clench 

Cloke 

Clodpole 

Cloathe 

Glyster 

Cobler 

Qnoif 

Coak 

Cullender 

Cholic 

Colly 

Coalery 

Compleat 

Complection 

Confectionary 

Confident 

Conjuror 

Connexion 

Connaisseur 

Consecrater 

Cotemporary 

Country-dance 

Comptrol 

Comptroller 

Conversible 

Coney 

Cooly 

Copyer 

Coppice 

Coquet 

Corbtil 

Corelative 

Cosy,  Cozej' 

Cott,  Cote 

Cotilion 

Colter 

Councillor,*  member  of  a  council. 

Counsellor,*  one  who  counsels. 

Courtesan  Courtezan 

Courtesy  Curtsy,  Curtesy 

Cozen  Cosen 


Craunch 

Crayfish,!  or 

Crier 

Crosslett 

Cruse  (cruet) 

Crumb 

Crystal 

Cue 

Cuneiform 

Cutlass 

Cyclopaedia* 

Cymar  { 

Cyst 

Czar,  -ina 

Dactyl 

Daily 

DandrufE 

Danegelt 

Debarkation 

Debonair 

Decrepit 

Defence* 

Defier 

Deflection 

Deflowerf 

Delft* 

Demarkationt 

Dependant,*  n. 

Dependence 

Dependent,  a. 

Deposit 

Desert,  n. 

Despatch* 

Dessert 

Detecter 

Detortiont 

Detractor 

Develop 

Development 

Dexterous 

Diairesis 

Diarrhoea 

Dike 

Diocese 


Cranch 

Crawfish 

Cryer 

Croslet 

Cruise 

Crum 

Chrystal 

Queue 

Cuniform 

Cutlas 

Cyclopedia 

Simar 

Cist 

Tzar,  Tsar,  -ina 

Dactyle 

Dayly 

Dandriff 
(  Dangelt 
(  Danegeld 

Debarcation 

Debounaire 

Decrepid 

Defense 

Def3'er 

Defllexion 

Deflour 

Delf,  Delph 

Demarcation 

Dependent 

Dependance 

Dependant 

Deposite 

Desart 

Dispatch 

Desert 

Detector 

Detorsion 

Detracter 

Develope 

Developement 

Dextrous 

Dieresis 

Diarrliea 

Dyke 

Diocess 


80 


LIST  OF  WORDS  VARIOUSLY  SPELLED. 


Disburden 

Disburthen 

Empale 

Dishabille* 
Disk 

Deshabille 
Disc 

Empanel 

Disseisef 

Disseize 

DisseisinI 

Disseizin 

EmployeeJ 

DisseisorJ 

Disseizor 

Empoison 

Distention 

Distension 

Empower 

Distil* 

Distill 

Encage 

Distrainor 

Distrainer 

Enchant 

Diversely 

Diversly 

Enchase 

Domicil 

Domicile 

Encircle 

Doomsday-book  Domesday-book 

Enclose* 

Dote 

Doat 

Enclosure* 

Dovecot* 

Dovecote 

Encroach 

Downfall 

Downfal 

Encumber 

Dowry 

Dowery 

Encumbrance 

Dram 

Drachm 

Encyclopaedia* 

Draught,  and 

Draft 

Endamage 

Draughtsman 

Draftsman 

Endear 

Driblet* 

Dribblet 

Endow 

Drier 

Dryer 

Endue 

Drought 

Drouth 

Enfeeble 

Dryly 

Drily 

Enfeoff 

Duchess 

Dutchess 

Enfranchise 

Duchy 

Dutchy 

Engender 

Dulness* 

Dullness 

Engorge 

Eccentric 

Excentric 

Enhance 

Economics 

CEconomics 

Enigma 

Ecstasy 

Ecstacy,  Extasy 

Enjoin 

Ecstatic 

Extatic 

Enlard 

Embalm 

Imbalm 

Enroll 

Embankment 

Imbankment 

Enrolment* 

Embargo 

Imbargo 

Enshrine 

Embark 

Imbark 

Ensnare 

Embarkation 

Embarcation 

Entail 

Embed 

Imbed 

Entangle 

Embezzle 

Imbezzle 

Enterprise 

Emblazon 

Imblazon 

Enthrone 

Embody 

Imbody 

Enthymeme 

Embolden 

Imbolden 

Entitle 

Emborder 

Imborder 

Entomb 

Embosom 

Imbosom 

Entrance 

Emboss 

Imboss 

Entrap 

Embowel 

Imbowel 

Entreat 

Embower 

Imbower 

Entwine 

Impale 
(  Empannel 
(  Impanel 
I  Employ^,  ?». 
/  Emplo3'^e,y*. 

Impoison 

Impower 

Incage 

Inchant 

Inchase 

Incircle 

Inclose 

Inclosure 

I nc roach 

Incumber 

Incumbrance 

Encyclopedia 

Indamage 

Indear 

Indow 

Indue 

Infeeble 

Infeoff 

Infranchise 

Ingender 

In  gorge 

Inhance 

Enigma 

Injoin 

Inlard 

Enrol,  Inrol 

Enrollment 

Inshrine 

Insnare 

Intail 

Intangle 

Enterprize 

Inthrone 
Enthymem 

Intitle 

In  tomb 

Intrance 

Intrap 

In treat 

Intwine 


LIST  OF  WORDS   VARIOUSLY  SPELLED. 


81 


Envelop,  v. 

Envelope 

Frustum 

Frnstrum 

Envelope,  n. 

Envelop 

Fugleman 

Fugelman 

Envelopment 

Envelopement 

Fulfil* 

FultiU 

Epaulettet 

Epaulet 

Fulfilment* 

Fulfillment 

Escritoire 

(  Escritoir 

Fulness* 

Fullness 

1  Scrutoire 

Further  {addit 

ional)  Farther 

Escutcheon 

Scutcheon 

Fusee* 

Fusil 

Exactor 

Exacter 

Gabardine 

Gaberdine 

Expense 

Expence 

Galiot 

Galliot 

Exsiccate,  etc. 

Exiccate 

Gantlet 

(  Gantelope 
\  Gauntlet 

Exude,  etc. 

Exsude 

VJlHiLlLl^  \t 

Eyrie  t 

Aerie,  Ayry 

Garish 

Gairish 

Fseces 

Feces 

Gauge 

Gage 

Fagot 

Faggot 

Gauntlet  [glove)  Gantlet 

Fairy 

Faery,  Faerie 

Gavety 

Gaiety 

Fakir 

Faquir 

Gayly 

Gaily 

Falchion 

Faulchion 

Gazelle 

Gazel 

Falcon,  etc. 

Faulcon 

Gear 

Geer 

Fantasy 

Phantasy 

Gelatine 

Gelatin 

Tarther  (distance)  Further 

Gerfalcon 

Gyrfalcon 

Farthest        " 

Furthest 

Germane 

{  German 
1  Germain 

Farthingale 

Fardingale 

Fecal 

FjEcal 

Ghibelline 

Gibelline 

Felly 

Felloe 

Gibe 

Gybe,  Jibe 

Felon 

Fellon 

Gimlet 

Gimblet 

Feldspart 

Felspar 

Girasole 

Girasol 

Feud 

Feod 

Girth* 

Girt 

Fibre* 

Fiber 

Glave 

Glaive 

Fie 

Fy 

Glazier 

Glasier 

Filigree 

(  Filigrane 
)  Filagree 

Gloze 
Gluey 

Giose 
Gluy 

Finery  {a  forge)  Finary 

Gnarled 

Knarled 

Flageolet 

Flagelet 

Good  by 

Good-bye 

Fledgelingt 

Fledgling 

Gore 

Goar 

Flier 

Flayer 

Gormand 

Gourmand 

Flour  {meal) 

Flower 

Graft 

Graff 

Foetus* 

Fetus 

Gram 

Gramme 

Forayt 

Forray 

Gran  dam 

Gran  dame 

Fosse 

Foss 

Granite 

Granit 

Foundryt 

Foundery 

Gray 

Grey 

Frenzy 

Phrensy 

Grenade 

Granade 

Frieze 

Prize 

Grenadier 

Granadier 

Frumentaceous    Frumentacious 

Greyhound 

Graj'hound 

Fnunenty 

(  Furmenty 
1  Furmety 

Griffin 
Grisly 

Gryphon,Griffon 
Grizzly 

82 


LIST  OF  WORDS  VARIOUSLY  SPELLED. 


Grizzled 

Grisled 

Hurrat 

Hurrah,  Huzza 

Groundselt 

Groundsill 

Hydrangea 

Hydrangia 

Group 

Groupe 

Hypaethral 

Hj'pethral 

Guarantee,  v. 

Guaranty 

Hypotenusef 

Hypotheniise 

Guaranty,  n. 

Guarantee 

Idyl 

Idyll 

Guild  (society) 

Gild 

Imbrue 

Embrue 

Guilder  (coin) 

Gilder 

Impair 

Empair 

Gulf 

Gulph 

Imparlance 

Emparlance 

Gunwale 

Gunnel 

Impassion 

Em  passion 

Gypsy* 

Gypsey,  Gipsy 

Implead 

Emplead 

Gyves 

Gives 

Imposthume 

Impostume 

Halberd 

Halbert 

Impoverish 

Empoverish 

Halibut 

Holibut 

Imprint 

Emprint 

Halvards 

Halliards 

Incase 

Encase 

Halloo,  Hollo 

Holloa,  Hollow 

Inclasp 

Enclasp 

Handicraft 

Handcraft 

Increase 

Encrease 

Handiwork 

Handwork 

Incrust 

Encrust 

Harebell 

Hairbell 

Indelible 

Indeleble 

Harebrained 

Hairbrained 

Indict 

Endict 

Harem 

Haram 

Indite 

Endite 

Harrier 

Harier 

Inditer 

Enditer 

Harslet* 

Haslet 

Indorse 

Endorse 

Haul  {to  drag) 

Hale 

Inferablet 

Inferrible 

Haunch 

Hanch 

Inflection 

Inflexion 

Hawser 

Halser 

Infold 

Enfold 

Hazel 

Hazle 

Infoliate 

Enfoliate 

Headache 

Headach 

Ingraft 

Ingraff,  Engraft 

Hearse 

Herse 

Ingrain 

Engrain 

Heartache 

Heartach 

Ingulf 

Engulf 

Height 

Hight 

Innuendo 

Inuendo 

Hemistich 

Hemistick 

Inquire 

Enquire 

Hibernate 

Hybernate 

Inquirer 

Enquirer 

Hiccough 

Hickup 

Inquiry 

Enquiry 

Hindoo 

Hindu  , 

Instalment* 

Installment 

Hindrance}: 

Hinderance 

Instil* 

Instill 

Hoarhound 

Horehound 

Instructor 

Instructer 

Hodge-podge 

Hotch-potch 

Insurance 

Ensurance 

Hoiden 

Hoyden 

Insure 

Ensure 

Holiday 

Holyday 

Inthrall 

1  Inthral 

Hollo,  Halloo 

Holloa,  Hollow 

1  Enthrall 

Honeyed 

Honied 

Inthralment 

Inthrallment 

Hoot 

Whoot 

Intrust 

Entrust 

Hornblende 

Hornblend 

Inure,  or 

Enure 

Hostler 

Ostler 

Inventor 

Inventer 

Housewife 

Huswife 

In  wrap 

Enwrap 

LIST  OF  WORDS  VARIOUSLY  SPELLED. 


83 


Inwreathe 

Inwreath 

Manoeuvre* 

Maneuver 

Jail 

Gaol 

Mantelpiece 

Mantlepiece 

Jailer 

Gaoler 

Marquis* 

Marquess 

Janizary- 

Janissary- 

Marshal 

Mareschal 

Jasmine 

Jessamine 

Martin  (bird) 

Marten 

Jaunt,  -ily 

Jant,  -ily 

Marten  {beast] 

Martin 

Jaunty 

Janty 

Mask 

Masque 

Jewelry 

Jewellcry 

Mastic 

Mastich 

Jonquille* 

Jonquil 

Mattress 

(  Matress 

Jostlet 

Justle 

1  Mattrass 

Jowlf 

Jole 

Maugre* 

Mauger 

Judgment 

Judgement 

Meagre* 

Meager 

Kale 

Kail,  Gail 

Mediaeval 

Medieval 

Keelhaul 

Keelhale 

Merchandise 

Merchandize 

Keelson 

Kelson 

Mere  (a  jjool) 

Meer 

Keg 

Cag 

Meter  J 

Metre 

Koran,  Alcoran 

Alkoran 

Mileage 

Milage 

Lackey 

Lacquey 

Milleped 

Millepede 

Lacquer 

Lacker 

Millionaire 

Millionnaire 

Lantern 

Lanthorn 

Misspell 

Mispell 

Lanyard 

Laniard 

Misspend 

Mispend 

Launch 

Lanch 

Mistletop 

(  Misletoe 
1  Misseltoe 

Lea*  (a  plain) 

Lee,  Ley,  Lay 

I'Xlo  Lll^  LLfC 

Leach,  v. 

Leech,  Letch 

Mitre* 

Miter 

Ledger 

Leger 

Mizzen 

Mizen 

Lettuce 

Lettice 

Moccason* 

(  Moccasin 
(  Moggason 

License 

Licence 

Licorice 

Liquorice 

Mohammedan 

(  Mahometan 
(  Muhammedan 

Lief 

Lieve,  Leef 

Lilac 

Lilach 

Moneyed 

Monied 

Llama  (animal) 

Lama 

Mood,  or 

Mode 

Loadstar 

Lodestar 

Mortgagor,!  or    Mortgageor 

Loadstone 

Lodestone 

Mosque 

Mosk 

Loath,  a. 

Loth 

( Moscheto 

Lode  (a  vein) 

Load 

Mosquito 

<  Musketoe 

Lodgment! 

Lodgement 

( Musquito 

Lower 

Lour 

Mould* 

Mold 

Lye  {from  ashes)  Lie,  Ley 

Moult* 

Molt 

Machiavellian 

Macchiavellian 

Mullein 

Mullin,  Mullen 

MaladniinistrationtMaleadministrat'n 

Multiped 

Multipede 

Malcontent! 

Malecontent 

Murder 

Murther 

Malfeasancef 

Malefeasance 

Murky 

Mirky 

Malpracticef 

Malepractice 

Muscle,  and 

Jlussel 

Maltreat 

Maletreat 

Mustache 

ISIoustache 

Manikin 

Mannikin 

Nankeen 

Nankin 

84 


LIST  OF  WORDS   VARIOUSLY  SPELLED. 


Naught 

Nought 

Polyhedron 

Polyedron 

Negotiate 

Negociate 

Pommel 

Punnnel 

Net,  o.  {clear) 

Neat,  Nelt 

Pontoon* 

Pouton 

Nitre 

Niter 

Pony 

Poney 

Northeast 

North-east 

Porpoise 

Porpus,  Porpess 

Novitiate 

Noviciate 

Portress* 

Porteress 

Octahedron 

f  Octaedron 
(  Octohedron 

Postilion 
Potato 

Postillion 
Potatoe 

(Ecumenical* 

Ecumenical 

Potsherd 

1  Potshard 
1  Potshare 

Offence* 

Offense 

Opaque 

Opake 

Practise,*  v. 

Practice 

Osier 

Ozier 

Premise 

Premiss 

Oxide 

Oxyde,  Oxj'd 

Pretence* 

Pretense 

Oyes 

Oyez 

Preterite* 

Preterit 

Pacha 

Pasha,  Bashaw 

Protector 

Protecter 

Palette 

Palet,  Pallet 

Pumpkm 

(  Pompion 

Palmiped 

Palmipede 

(  Pumpion 

Panel 

Pannel 

Purr 

Pur 

Pappoose* 

Papoose 

Purslane! 

Purslain 

Paralyze 

Paralyse 

Putrefy 

Putrify 

Parol,  a. 

Parole 

Pygmy 

Pigmy 

Partisan 

Partizan 

Pyx 

Pix 

Patrol,- re. 

Patrole 

Quadrat  ( 7j(/j.)   Quadrate 

Paver 

Pavier,  Pavior 

QuartetteJ 

Quartet 

PaynimJ 

Painim 

Quay  (a  mole) 

Key 

Pedler* 
Penniless 

Peddler,  Pedlar 
Pennj'less 

Quinsy 

J  Quinsey 
/  Qiiinzy 

Peony 

Piony 

QuintetteJ 

Quintet 

Persimmon 

Persimon 

Raccoon 

Racoon,  Rackoon 

Persistence 

Persistance 

Rarefy 

Rarify 

Phantasm 

Fantasm 

Raspberry 

Rasberry 

Phantom 

Fantom 

Rattan 

Ratan 

Philter 

Philtre 

Raven  (prey) 

Ravin 

Phoenix* 

Phenix 

Raze 

Rase 

Phthisic 

Tisic 

Real  (coin) 

Rial,  Ryal 

Piaster 

Piastre 

Rearward 

Rereward 

Picket 

Piquet 

Recall 

Recal 

Pie 

Pye 

Recognize,  etc. 

Recognise,  efc. 

Piebald 

Pyebald 

Recognizance 

Recognisance 

Pimento 

Pinienta 

Reconnoitre* 

Reconnoiter 

Pincers* 

Pinchers 

Redoubt 

Redout 

Plat,  or 

Plot 

Referable 

Referrible 

Pliers 

Plyers 

Reflection 

Reflexion 

Plough*       , 

Plow 

Reindeer 

J  Raindeer 

Pluniiped 

Pluniipede 

J  Ranedeer 

LIST 

OF   WORDS   VARIOUSLY   SPELLED.           8 

Relic 

Eelique 

Sheathe,  v. 

Sheath 

Rennet 

Kunnet 

Sheik 

Sheikh,  Scheik 

Replier 

Eeplyer 

Show 

Shew 

Reposit 

Reposite 

Showbread 

Shewbread 

Resistance 

Resistence 

Sliylv,  -ness 

Shilv,  -ness 

Restiff,  or 

Restive 

Sibyl 

Sybil 

Reverie 

Revery 

Sidewise 

Sideways 

Reversible 

Reversable 

Silicious,  or 

Siliceous 

Ribbon 

Riband 

Siphon 

S3'phon 

Rodomontade 

Rhodomontade 

Sirloin 

Surloin 

Roister,  -er 

Royster,  -er 

Skilful* 

Skillful 

Sac  [Nat.  Hist.)  Sack 

Skulk 

Sculk 

Sainfoin 

Saintfoin 

Skull 

Scull 

Salic 

Salique 

Sleight,  n. 

Slight 

Saltpetre* 

Saltpeter 

Slyh-,  -ness 

Slily,  -ness 

Sandaract 

Sandarach 

Smoulder* 

Smolder 

Sanskrit! 

Sanscrit 

Smooth,  V. 

Smoothe 

Sarcenet 

Sarsenet 

Socage 

Soccage 

Sat 

Sate 

Solan-goose 

Soland-goose 

Satchel 

Sachel 

Solder 

Soder 

Satinet 

Satinelt 

Sombre* 

Somber 

Saviour 

Savior 

Somersault 

Summersault 

Scallop 

Scollop 

Somerset 

Summerset 

Scath,  or 

Scathe 

Soothe 

Sooth 

Sceptic* 

Skeptic 

Sorrel 

Sorel 

Schist 

Shist 

Southwest 

South-west 

Scion 

Cion 

Spinach 

Spinage 

Scirrhus 

Skirrhus 

Sponge 

Spunge 

Sconce 

Skonce 

Sprite 

Spright 

Scot-free 

Shot-free 

Spurt,  or 

Spirt 

Seym i tar  ;  see 

Cimeter 

Stanch 

Staunch 

Scythe 

Sithe,  Sythe 

Stationery,  n. 

Stationary 

Seamstress 

Sempstress 

Steadfast 

Stedfast 

Sear 

Sere 

Steelyard 

Stillyard 

Secretarj'ship 

Secretariship 

Sterile 

Steril 

Seethe 

Seeth 

Stillness 

Stilness 

Seignior 

Signior,  Signor 

Stockade 

Stoccade 

Seised j:  (possessed  of )  Seized 

Strait,  n. 

Straight,  n. 

SeisinJ  (law) 

Seizin 

Strew 

Straw,  Strew 

Sentinel 

Centinel 

Stupefy 

Stupify 

Sergeant 

Serjeant 

Stv 

Stve 

Shakespeare 

J  Shakspeare 
(  Shakspere 

Style 
Subtile  (thin) 

Stile 
Subtle 

Shakespearian 

Shakspearan 

Subtle  (sly) 

Subtile 

Shard 

Sherd 

Subtract 

Substract 

86 


LIST  OF  WORDS  VARIOUSLY   SPELLED. 


Suitor 

Suiter 

Vender,  or 

Vendor  (Law) 

Sulphuretted* 

Sulphureted 

Verdigris 

Verdegris 

Sumact 

Sumach,  Shumac 

Vermilion 

Vermillion 

Suretyship 

Suretiship 

■y  ertebra 

Verteber 

Surname 

Sirname 

Vervain 

Vervaine 

Surprise 

Surprize 

Vial 

Phial 

Swath 

Swarth 

Vicious 

Vitious 

Swathe,  v. 

Swath 

VidetteJ 

Vedette 

Swapt 

Swop 

Villanous* 

Villainous 

Sycamore 

Sycamine 

Villany* 

Villainy 

Sylvan 

Silvan 

Viset  (a  screw) 

Vice 

Synonymf 

Synonyme 

Visitor 

Visiter 

Syrupt 

Sirup,  Sirop 

Visor 

Vizor 

Systematize 

Sj'stemize 

Vitiate 

Viciate 

Taffety* 

Taffeta 

Vizier 

Vizir,  Visier 

Talc  (a  sto7ie) 

Talk,  Talck 

Wagon 

Waggon 

Tambourine 

(  Tambourin 
(  Tamborine 

Waive  (to  defei 

)  Wave 

Walrus 

Walruss 

Tarpaulint 

{  Tarpawling 
1  Tarpauling 

Wear  (Naut.) 

Ware 

Weirt 

Wear,  Wier 

Tawny 

Tawney 

Weasand 

Wezand 

Tease 

Teaze 

Welsh 

Welch 

Theatre* 

Theater 

Whippletree 

Whiffletree 

Thraldom* 

Thralldora 

Whippoorwill 

Whippowill 

Thrash 

Thresh 

Whiskey* 

Whisky 

Threshold 

Throshhold 

Whoop 

Hoop 

Tidbit 

Titbit 

Whooping-cough 

Hooping-cough 

Tithe 

Tythe 

Widgeon 

Wigeon 

Toilet 

Toilette 

Wilful* 

Willful 

Toll  (to  allure] 

Tole 

Windlass 

f  Windlace 
/  Windlas 

Tormentor 

Tormenter 

Tourmaline 

Tourmalin 

Wintry* 

Wintery 

Tranquillit}'* 

Tranquility 

Withe,  t  n. 

With 

Tranquillize* 

Tranquilize 

Withal 

Withall 

Transferable 

Transferrible 

Woe 

Wo 

Trousers 

Trowsers 

Woful 

Woeful 

(  Turkois 

Wondrous 

Wonderous 

Turquoisf 

I  Turquoise 

Woollen* 

Woolen 

Unaneled 

Unanelled 

Worshipper 

Worshiper 

Unbiasedt 

Unbiassed 

Wreathe,  v. 

Wreath 

Unhouselled 

Unhouseled 

Wreck 

Wrack 

Unroll 

Unrol 

Yeast 

Yest 

Until* 

Untill 

Yelk 

Yolk 

Valise 

Vallise 

Zinc 

Zink 

Veil 

Vail 

Zinciferous 

Zinkiferous 

ACCENTS,   DIVISIONS,  ETC.  87 


CHAPTEE    XI. 

ACCENTS,   DIVISIONS,   ETC.,  IN  THE    CLASSICAL 
AND   MODERN  LANGUAGES. 

I.    English. 

1.  The  English  language  has  no  universally  recog- 
nized accentual  or  diacritical  marks,  except  the  long  (-) 
and  short  (— ),  which  are  never  used  in  general  works, 
and  the  diaeresis  (•• ).  Even  this  last  mark  is  used 
in  our  spelling-books  and  dictionaries  for  a  purpose 
totally  different  from  its  proper  use,  which  (as  its  name 
signifies)  is  to  show  that  two  vowels  which  might  consti- 
tute a  diphthong  are  to  be  pronounced  separately.  It  is 
also  correctly  used  in  proper  names  from  the  German. 

2.  All  other  accents  on  vowels  in  English  have  no 
fixed  meaning.  It  is  therefore  totally  useless  for  writers 
to  undertake  to  show  by  the  use  of  such  letters  as  d  or  e, 
and  e  or  e,  the  pronunciation  of  a  foreign  word  to  a 
mere  English  reader. 

3.  The  only  other  marks  nsed  are  the  French  f  in 
words  adopted  from  the  French,  as  fagade,  and  n  in 
words  from  the  Spanish,  as  canon.  Words  like  chdteau 
and  fete  are  sometimes  written  with  the  French  accent, 
but  this  is  useless,  as  the  pronunciation  can  be  as  easily 
learned  without  the  accent  as  with  it. 

4.  In  all  foreign  languages,  however,  accentual  marks 
have  a  meaning  and  purpose,  and  the  following  direc- 
tions are  intended  to  show  how  they  are  used,  even  to 
those  who  do  not  know  their  fuU  meaning  or  purposa 


88  GREEK. 

5.  The  same  punctuation  marks,  as  well  as  the  dash, 
parenthesis,  and  quotation  marks,  are  used  in  all  these 
languages  except  the  Greek,  and  for  the  same  purpose 
as  in  English. 

II.    Greek. 

1.  The  Greek  language  is  written  with  twenty-four 
letters,  two  breathings,  three  accents,  five  marks  of 
punctuation,  and  the  apostrophe. 

2.  The  marks  of  punctuation  are  the  comma,  the 
colon  ( • ),  the  period,  the  note  of  interrogation  ( ; ),  and 
the  exclamation  point,  —  all  like  ours  but  the  colon 
and  the  note  of  interrogation. 

3.  A  single  vowel  beginning  a  word  has  a  breathing 
placed  over  it,  or  before  it  if  it  is  a  capital ;  either  the 
smooth  ( ' ),  which  has  no  sound,  or  the  rough  ( ' ), 
which  has  the  efiect  of  an  h  before  the  vowel.  If  a 
diphthong  begins  a  word,  the  breathing,  as  well  as  the 
accent,   is  put  over  the  second  letter.       E.  g.  6  airqp, 

4.  The  rough  breathing  is  also  used  over  the  letter  p 
when  it  begins  a  word,  as  pioi ;  and  where  the  p  is  dou- 
bled a  breathing  is  put  over  each  letter,  as  apprjv,  JJvppos. 

5.  The  smooth  breathing  sometimes  occurs  in  the 
middle  of  a  word  in  poetry,  when  it  shows  that  the 
elision  of  a  vowel  has  taken  place,  and  two  words  have 
been  united ;  as,  Tovvavriov  for  to  Ivavriov,  kov  for  kol 
av,  rjTapa  for  ^roi  apa. 

6.  The  accents  are  the  acute  ('),  the  grave  (^),  and 
the  circumflex  ("  or  "  ) ;  one  of  these  belongs  on  every 
word,  and  only  one,  except  in  the  case  of  enclitics. 

1  The  6,  T),  and  ri  here  are  respectively  the  masculine,  feminiuei 
and  neuter  article. 


GREEK.  89 

7.  No  accent  can  come  upon  any  syllable  before  the 
antepenult/  and  none  but  the  acute  on  this.  The  acute 
cannot  be  used  upon  the  last  syllable  of  a  word  in  the 
midst  of  a  sentence,  but  is  used  instead  of  the  grave 
whenever  it  occurs  before  any  punctuation  mark,  or  on 
a  word  in  an  English  sentence.  The  interrogative  rt  or 
Tts  is  an  exception  to  this  rule,  and  is  always  written 
with  the  acute  accent. 

8.  The  circumflex  can  be  used  only  on  one  of  the 
last  two  syllables,  and  never  over  either  of  the  short 
vowels  €  and  o.^ 

9.  The  grave  can  be  used  only  on  the  final  syllable. 
It  is  not  used  immediately  before  any  mark  of  punctu- 
ation except  occasionally  the  comma,  nor  on  a  single 
word  standing  in  an  English  sentence. 

10.  If  an  accent  comes  upon  a  diphthong,  it  is  placed 
over  the  second  letter ;  and  if  upon  a  capital  at  the  be- 
ginning of  a  word,  it  is  put  before  it  with  the  breath- 
ing ;  as,  Aia?,  "Ofjirjpo<;,  'O  <^tAos. 

11.  An  enclitic  is  a  word  attached  in  accentuation  to 
the  preceding  word,  and  has  its  accent  thrown  back 
upon  the  last  syllable  of  the  preceding  word,  and  some- 
times successively  on  two  or  three  words ;  as,  avOpum-o^ 

i(TTL '   Setfov  /u,oi  •    ct  Tt'?  TLvd  (prjcTL  fJ-OL  irapCLvai. 

12.  The  three  vowels  a,  -q,  w,  take  sometimes,  the 
iota  subscript,  a,  y,  w.     When  one  of  these  letters  re- 

1  The  penult  is  the  last  syllable  but  one  of  a  word  ;  the  ante- 
penult is  the  one  preceding  the  penult. 

2  Notwithstanding  the  circumflex  accent  can  never  be  used  on 
these  short  vowels,  English  tj^ie-founders  send  out  with  all  their 
Greek  fonts  a  great  quantity  of  these  useless  accents  ;  and  in  a  print- 
er's manual  recently  printed  in  Philadelphia,  notwithstanding  the 
use  of  the  accents  purports  to  be  explained,  in  the  Greek  case  which 
is  given  boxes  axe  shown  for  various  combinations  of  these  letters. 


90  LATIN. 

quires  to  be  capitalized,  the  t  is  put  after  the  capital, 
and  any  accent  or  breathing  required  is  put  before  it ; 
as,  "AiSt^s  for  glSt;?,  "HiSt;  for  778-7,  'f2tS'7  for  ioStj. 

13.  The  diajresis  is  used  for  the  same  purpose  as  in 
English  (p.  87),  and  the  apostrophe  also,  to  show  the 
elision  of  a  vowel  at  the  beginning  or  end  of  a  word. 

14.  In  dividing  words  at  the  end  of  a  line,  all  the 
consonants  which  can  be  pronounced  together  are  car- 
ried over ;  but  compounds  are  separated  into  their  ele^ 
raents ;  as,  crui'-etV-ct/Ai. 

III.    Latin. 

1.  The  Latin  alphabet  is  the  same  as  the  English, 
with  the  exception  of  w. 

2.  Latin  is  now  commonly  printed  with  no  marks  of 
accent  whatever  except  the  diaeresis,  which  is  used  for 
the  same  purpose  as  in  Greek  and  English. 

3.  The  diphthongs  ce  and  oe  are  now  often  printed 
separately,  ae  and  oe ;  in  this  case,  where  they  are  not 
diphthongs  the  diaeresis  is  put  over  the  e  ;  as,  aer,  poeta. 
But  if  the  oe  or  a?  is  used  wherever  it  is  a  diphthong, 
the  separate  letters  without  the  diaeresis  sufficiently  de- 
note that  they  are  not  a  diphthong ;  as,  aer,  poeta. 

4.  In  writing  Latin  names  or  other  words  as  English, 
the  diphthong  should  always  be  used  ;  as,  Caesar,  Meli- 
boeus,  anapcBst,  Athenceum,  ccesura. 

5.  The  grave  accent  was  formerly  used  to  distinguish 
certain  particles  from  other  words  spelled  in  the  same 
manner ;  as,  quod,  because  ;  quod,  which. 

6.  The  circumflex  was  used  over  final  d  in  the  Ab- 
lative case  of  the  first  declension  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  Nominative ;  as,  bond  fide,  sub  rosd.  Also  over  u 
in  lis  and  ilm,  to  mark  the  Genitive  in  the  fourth  de- 


FRENCH.  91 

clension.  It  was  also  used  to  mark  various  contrac- 
tions ;  as,  D%  for  Dii:  and  also  over  a  vowel  in  certain 
verbs  to  denote  the  omission  of  vi  in  conjugation ;  as, 
amdsti  for  amavisti. 

7.  In  printing  Latin,  copy  should  be  followed  as  to 
diphthongs  and  accents,  if  it  is  uniform ;  as  many  still 
prefer  to  retain  the  old  style,  which  in  fact  is  followed 
in  all  English  works  except  those  of  a  very  recent  date, 

8.  Words  are  generally  divided  in  Latin  by  the  same 
rules  as  in  English,  although  some  authors  follow  the 
rule  of  the  Greek,  in  separating  all  the  consonants  which 
can  be  pronounced  together  from  the  preceding  vowel. 

IV.    French. 

1.  The  French  alphabet  is  the  same  with  the  Eng- 
lish, excepting  w  and  k.  It  has  three  orthographic 
marks,  the  acute  ( ' ),  the  grave  ( '  ),  and  the  circum- 
flex (^). 

2.  The  acute  is  used  only  over  e,  and  shows  that  it 
has  the  sound  of  a  in  English,  or  a  in  date.  Ex.  ete, 
donne,  reunir,  annee.  Wherever  two  e's  come  together 
in  French,  the  first  is  always  acute ;  as,  nee,  passee, 
meuhUes,  rencontrees. 

3.  The  grave  accent  is  used  over  e,  which  then  has 
the  sound  of  e  in  ebb,  or  in  there  ;  as,  pere,  mere,  pres, 
deuxieme,  trouverent.  It  occurs  very  frequently  over 
certain  syllables  ending  with  two  e's  separated  by  one 
or  two  consonants,  as  ere,  erne,  etre,  ecle,  which  have 
the  first  e  grave ;  but  this  does  not  necessarily  follow, 
as  the  e  may  here  be  either  acute  or  circumflex.  The 
grave  is  used  over  a  and  u  only  to  distinguish  a  word 
from  another  of  the  same  spelling,  but  of  different 
meaning ;  as,  la,  the ;  Id,,  there ;  on,  or ;  oil,  where. 


92  FRENCH. 

4.  The  circumflex  is  used  over  all  the  vowels,  and  de- 
notes that  a  letter  has  been  omitted  in  spelling  which 
was  formerly  used ;  as,  dge,  fork,  tie,  maitre,  cote,  siir. 

5.  The  diseresis,  or  trema,  is  also  used  in  French  for 
the  same  purpose  as  in  English. 

6.  The  cedilla  is  placed  under  c  before  a,  u,  and  o, 
when  it  has  the  sound  of  s  ;  as,  fa(;ade,  gar<}on,  rec^u. 

7.  Adjectives  denoting  nationality  are  written  with- 
out a  capital ;  as,  anglais,  americain,  franr^ais,  romain. 

8.  The  vowels  a,  e,  and  i,  when  final,  are  sometimes 
elided  before  a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel  or  silent 
h.  The  a  is  elided  only  in  the  article  la  ;  as,  tamitie, 
Vkistoire.  The  e  is  elided  in  the  article  le,  the  preposi- 
tion de,  the  pronouns  jiV,  me,  te,  ce,  se,  and  que,  and  the 
negative  adverb  ne,  as  well  as  several  other  words ;  as, 
faime ;  c'est  I'ho^nme  quil  n^estime  pas.  Also  in  words 
like  grand'mere,  attjourd' kui,  entr'acte.  The  ^  is  elided 
only  in  the  conjunction  si  before  il  and  ils ;  as,  sHl,  sHls. 
In  all  these  cases  the  words  are  run  together,  without  a 
space,  contrary  to  the  practice  in  other  languages. 

9.  In  dividing  French,  a  single  consonant  between 
two  vowels  always  goes  with  the  last  syllable,  and  all 
consonants  which  can  be  pronounced  together  go  with 
the  following  vowel. 

10.  In  i;sing  French  titles  before  names  in  English, 
the  barbarism  of  using  an  English  noun  with  a  French 
preposition  should  be  avoided  ;  either  make  both  French 
or  both  English.  Write  Due  d'Orleans,  or  Duke  of 
Orleans ;  Due  de  la  Rochefoucauld,  or  Duke  of  La 
Rochefoucauld ;  Comte  d'Artois,  or  Count  of  Artois ; 
Duchesse  de  Perpignan,  or  Duchess  of  Perpignan.  I^ot 
Duke  d'Orleans,  Duke  de  la  Rochefoucauld,  Count 
d'Artois,  Duchess  de  Perpignan. 


ITALIAN.  93 


V.    Italian, 

1.  The  Italian  alphabet  consists  of  twenty-two  let- 
ters, similar  to  the  English  with  the  omission  of  k,  w, 
X,  and  y.  The  letter  j  is  a  vowel,  and  frequently  oc- 
curs at  the  end  of  a  word  after  a  consonant ;  as,  temjyj, 
studj,  sounded  like  the  English  y. 

2.  The  Italian  has  only  two  accents,  the  grave  ( ' ) 
and  the  acute  ( ' ). 

3.  The  grave  is  used  on  a  vowel  at  the  end  of  a 
word,  to  distinguish  it  from  another  word  alike  in 
orthography  but  different  in  signification,  as  well  as 
for  some  other  purposes.  It  can  occur  only  on  the 
last  letter  of  a  word,  and  on  this  the  acute  never 
comes. 

4.  The  acute  is  used  on  the  i  of  words  ending  in  lo 
and  ia  whenever  these  letters  make  two  distinct  sylla- 
bles, thus  answering  the  purpose  of  the  diaeresis  in 
other  languages ;  as,  galleria,  addlo.  It  is  sometimes 
used,  on  diflTerent  syllables,  in  words  spelled  alike,  which 
have  two  significations ;  but  only  in  cases  where  the 
meaning  would  otherwise  be  ambiguous. 

5.  The  apostrophe  is  used  in  articles  in  place  of  the 
final  vowel  when  they  come  before  a  word  beginning 
with  another  vowel,  or  when  they  are  abbreviated ;  as, 
V  animo,  V  onore,  de'  libri,  Lorenzo  c?e'  Medici.  The  i  in 
il  is  also  cut  off  after  a  word  ending  with  a  vowel ;  as, 
tutto  'I  paese.  Several  other  words  are  likewise  con- 
tracted in  the  same  manner,  at  the  end  or  the  begin- 
ning. In  all  cases,  however,  the  words  remain  separate, 
and  are  not  run  together  as  in  French. 

6.  The  rules  for  the  division  of  words  are  the  same 
as  in  French. 


94  GERMAN. 


VI.    German. 


1.  The  German  alphabet  contains  the  same  letters  as 
the  English,  and.  the  following  letters  also  occur  :  g, 
If,  §,  a,  0,  and  ii.  But  the  German  has  no  accentual 
marks. 

2.  The  €  is  always  used  at  the  end  of  words,  and  in  a 
compound  made  of  a  word  ending  in  g  with  another 
word  ;  the  ff  is  used  only  in  the  middle  of  words  ;  as, 
te^  2Ba[fcriJ,  fceg  ^aufc^,  auiSfel)en,  33ii?(^en.  The  char- 
acter p  is  represented  when  the  Eoman  alphabet  is  used 
by  ss ;  it  is  thus  possible  in  a  compound  word  to  bring 
three  s's  together. 

3.  The  d,  6,  and  it  are  represented  in  the  Eoman 
alphabet  by  a,  o,  and  ii,  and  these  are  also  used  when 
German  names  are  written  in  English,  although  ae,  oe, 
and  ue  are  sometimes  used  instead.  The  diphthong  oe 
and  ce  should  never  be  put  for  a  and  6.  E.  g.  33a()r, 
Bahr  or  Baehr ;  jlorner,  Korner  or  Koerner;  5)?iiUer, 
Miiller  or  Mueller.  @ott)e  is  written  Goethe  in  Eng- 
lish, but  other  German  names  are  usually  written  with 
the  a,  d,  or  ii.  In  capitals  the  mark  is  not  put  over 
the  letter,  but  an  e  is  put  after  it ;  as,  UcBer  for  iihtv ; 
Defter  for  ofter.^ 

4.  In  German  every  noun  is  commenced  with  a 
capital  letter. 

5.  In  dividing  words,  the  German  follows  the  rule 
of  carrying  over  all  the  consonants  which  can  be  pro- 
nounced together,  like  the  other  Continental  languages. 
But  compound  words  must  always  be  separated. 

1  The  compositor  must  not  think,  because  a  word  is  sometimes 
written  with  the  a,  O,  or  U  simple,  and  sometimes  with  d,  6,  or  u,  it  is 
a  misprint,  as  the  plural  of  many  words  is  made  by  this  change ; 
as,  S3ater,  SBdter ;  2)?utter,  2)?uttcr ;  ®orten,  ®drten ;  Sogel,  SSijgel. 


SPANISH,   ETC.  95 

VII,    Spanish. 

1.  The  Spanish  alphabet  is  the  same  as  the  English, 
with  the  exception  of  w  and  the  addition  of  n.  The 
character  II  is  used  as  a  consonant ;  as  in  llama. 

2.  The  acute  accent  is  used  in  Spanish  to  mark  the 
accented  syllable  when  not  determined  by  fixed  rules. 
It  is  used  in  monosyllables  on  the  conjunctions  e,  6, 
and  w,  and  the  preposition  a  ;  and  also  on  the  pronouns 
el,  mi,  si,  and  the  verbs  de,  se,  ve,  which  it  distin- 
guishes from  other  words  written  without  the  accent. 

3.  The  only  other  marks  are  occasionally  the  ii,  and 
in  older  Spanish  the  circumflex  is  found  over  the 
vowels,  but  it  is  not  now  used;  also  the  cedilla  (f), 
as  in  French,  for  which  z  is  now  used. 

4.  The  note  of  interrogation  in  Spanish  is  always  put 
before  a  question,  inverted,  as  well  as  at  the  end. 

5.  It  is  divided  into  syllables  like  the  other  principal 
modern  languages. 

VIII.    Other  Modern  Languages. 

1.  The  Portuguese  has  a  waving  mark  over  vowels 
to  denote  that  a  consonant  sound  is  omitted  ;  as,  Joao, 
Gar(^ao}  The  acute  accent  is  sometimes  used,  and  the 
f  is  also  used  as  in  French. 

2.  The  Dutch  use  the  same  alphabet  with  the  Engv 
lish,  and  have  no  accented  or  marked  letters.  A  po. 
culiarity  of  the  Dutch  is  the  vowel  ij,  which  is  equiva- 
lent to  our  y  ;  as,  Bilderdijk,  Hmjgens. 

3.  The  Danish  marked  letters  are  the  a,  b,  and  -O; 
which  last  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  language.     Danish  is 

1  This  mark  is  frequently  found  in  old  English  books  and  manu- 
scripts, where  it  is  used  for  the  same  purpose. 


96  HEBREW. 

sometimes  printed  in  the  German  and  sometimes  in  the 
Roman  character,  as  is  also  the  case  with  the  Swedish. 

4.  The  Swedish  has  the  German  a  and  o,  and  also  a 
letter  peculiar  to  the  language,  °i,  which  is  frequently 
seen  in  proper  names ;  as,  Smaland,  Abo.  The  acute 
is  sometimes  used  in  Swedish  to  mark  an  accented  syl- 
lable ;  as,  Tegner,  Franzen. 

5.  The  Modern  Greek,  or  Romaic,  is  printed  precisely 
like  the  classical  Greek,  and  is  subject  to  the  same  typo- 
graphical rules  in  all  respects. 

6.  The  Slavic  languages  of  Europe  —  Russian,  Pol- 
ish, Hungarian,  etc.  —  and  the  Turkish  are  not  often 
seen  in  anything  but  proper  names ;  and  so  of  the 
Arabic,  Persian,  and  other  Oriental  languages.  These 
are  all  so  variously  spelled  that  any  directions  are  use- 
less. Every  writer  or  traveller  —  if  he  gives  us  noth- 
ing else  new  —  invariably  has  a  new  mode  of  marking 
names,  which  has  no  significance  whatever  to  the  Eng- 
lish reader. 

IX.    Hebrew. 

The  use  of  Hebrew  in  this  country  does  not  warrant 
the  large  space  given  to  it  in  printer's  manuals,  which 
is  totally  useless.  ISTo  compositor  can  set  Hebrew  with- 
out studying  the  letters  and  points  in  the  grammar. 
The  only  use  generally  made  of  it  is  in  commentaries  on 
the  Bible.  One  thing,  however,  must  be  remembered, 
—  that,  as  Hebrew,  like  all  Oriental  languages,  is  read 
from  right  to  left,  if  a  passage  is  quoted  which  has  to 
be  divided,  the  right-hand  words  must  go  in  the  first 
line,  and  the  left-hand  words  be  carried  over. 


REMARKS  ON  COMPOSITION.  97 


•       CHAPTEE    XII. 

REMARKS  ON  COMPOSITION.  —  TECHNICAL 
TERMS.  — SIZES  OF  TYPE. 

1.  Composition  is  the  most  important  branch  of  the 
printing  business.  Unless  that  is  done  tastefully  and 
accurately,  fine  press  work  and  expensive  paper  will  be 
thrown  away.  The  shape  of  the  page,  the  proper  sink- 
age  of  headings,  the  relative  sizes  of  the  types  for  text, 
notes,  etc.,  all  require  careful  attention.  We  shall  first 
explain  so  much  of  the  process  as  to  give  a  new  author 
an  idea  of  the  terms  which  he  ought  to  understand. 

2.  The  compositor's  stand  is  a  wooden  frame  made 
to  hold  two  pairs  of  cases,  usually  for  Eoman  and  Italic. 
The  lower  case  is  the  nearest  to  the  compositor,  and 
contains  all  the  small  letters  of  the  alphabet  (hence 
called  lower-case  letters),  the  punctuation  marks,  figures, 
spaces,  and  quadrats,  or  quads.  The  upper  case  is  raised 
above  the  lower  case,  and  contains  the  capitals,  small 
capitals,  reference  marks,  braces,  accents,  etc. 

3.  The  spaces  are  merely  blank  types  used  between 
the  words,  and  the  quadrats  are  larger  blanks,  of  the 
size  of  an  en,  an  em,  and  of  two  or  three  ems.  The 
spaces  are  the  3-em  or  thick  space,  the  4-em  or  middle 
space,  the  5-em  or  thin  space,  and  the  hair-space.  The 
thick  space  is  used  between  words  in  solid  matter,  or 
matter  which  has  no  lead  between  the  lines.  The  em 
quad  is  a  square  of  the  size  of  the  body  of  the  type, 
and  is  the  proper  indentation  of  a  paragraph,  and  also 


98  REMARKS   ON   COMPOSITION. 

the  proper  space  after  a  period  or  other  full  stop  before 
the  next  sentence.  The  en  quad  is  half  the  thickness 
of  the  em,  and  is  the  proper  space  between  words  in 
leaded  or  open  matter,  and  the  proper  space  to  put 
after  a  semicolon  or  colon  when  hues  are  spaced  with 
3-em  spaces,  the  5-em  space  being  used  before  these 
marks  when  they  are  properly  made  (see  No.  16).  The 
larger  quadrats  are  used  merely  for  blanks  at  the  end 
of  a  paragraph. 

4.  The  lead  is  a  thin  strip  of  metal,  put  between  the 
lines  when  desired,  of  the  same  height  with  the  quad- 
rats and  spaces.  Leads  are  cast  of  any  thickness,  and 
are  reckoned  as  to  thickness  by  the  number  required  to 
equal  a  Pica  em.  Thus  i's  are  four  to  a  Pica,  6's  six  to 
a  Pica,  and  lO's  (the  thinnest  used)  ten  to  a  Pica.  Any 
space  desired  between  lines  may  be  made  by  doubling 
or  trebling  a  lead  of  proper  thickness. 

5.  When  type  is  new,  in  papers  from  the  foundry 
the  compositor  first  lays  his  case,  which  is  merely  de- 
positing the  types  in  their  proper  boxes.  If  the  type 
has  before  been  used,  he  takes  in  his  left  hand  as  much 
of  the  dead  matter  as  it  is  convenient  to  hold,  with  the 
face  turned  towards  him,  so  that  he  can  readily  see  the 
words,  and  proceeds  to  distribute  it  to  the  proper  boxes. 
The  speed  and  accuracy  with  which  a  good  compositor 
does  this  is  a  wonder  to  the  beholder.  Indeed,  a  com- 
positor could  do  it  with  equal  facility  in  the  dark,  if  he 
could  but  read  the  words  he  has  to  distribute ;  as  an 
accomplished  player  •will  touch  any  key  of  his  instru- 
ment, while  his  eyes  are  fastened  on  the  music  which 
he  is  playing.  Distributing  is  a  very  important  matter, 
for,  if  letters  are  put  into  the  wrong  boxes,  the  com- 
positor will  find  it  to  his  cost  when  he  gets  his  proof. 


TECHNICAL  TERMS.  99 

He  should  avoid  filling  his  case  so  full  that  the  let- 
ters may  be  knocked  from  one  box  to  another ;  and  it 
is  better  to  distribute  two  or  three  times  a  day,  as  he 
thereby  gets  a  change  from  setting,  which  is  a  great 
relaxation. 

6.  The  compositor  now  receives  his  take  of  copy  from 
the  foreman,  usually  about  a  day's  work,  and  proceeds 
to  set  his  composing-stick.  This,  by  means  of  a  slide, 
can  be  adjusted  to  any  width  desired.  If  his  work  is 
to  be  leaded,  he  sets  his  stick  by  the  leads,  taking  great 
care  to  adjust  it  so  that  the  lead  will  move  readily 
in  the  stick,  and  yet  so  that  no  letter,  or  even  hair- 
space,  can  slip  by  it.  If  the  matter  is  to  be  solid,  he 
adjusts  it  to  the  given  number  of  ems. 

7.  So  much  has  been  said  about  the  proper  prepara- 
tion of  copy,  that  it  seems  hardly  necessary  to  say  any- 
thing further  upon  the  subject.  But  it  is  of  so  much 
consequence  to  the  compositor,  as  a  matter  of  money, 
that  we  must  insist  on  the  duty  of  an  author's  having 
his  copy  carefully  and  legibly  written ;  and,  where  dif- 
ferent types  are  used,  of  marking  the  sizes  distinctly, 
and  distinguishing  foot-notes  carefully  from  what  is  to 
be  inserted  in  the  text.  If  the  copy  is  illegible  or  faulty 
in  these  respects,  the  compositor  ought,  in  common  hon- 
esty, to  be  paid  for  it. 

8.  The  compositor  now,  first  getting  or  making  a 
composing-rule  (whicli  is  a  plate  of  brass  or  steel  of  the 
height  of  type,  with  a  little  projection  at  the  end,  that 
it  may  readily  be  transferred  after  his  line  is  complete) 
to  fit  his  stick,  sets  as  many  words  as  will  go  in  the 
line  with  good  spacing,  or  part  of  one  where  a  long 
word  which  can  be  properly  divided  comes  at  the  end 
of  the  line,  and  then  spaces  out  as  evenly  as  possible 


100  REMARKS  ON  COMPOSITION. 

between  every  word,  in  no  place  making  more  than  the 
difference  of  a  5-em  space,  and  not  even  this  by  the 
side  of  a  word  of  two  or  three  letters  only.  In  doing 
this,  he  must  justify  his  line  exactly,  —  not  allowing  it 
to  be  loose,  but  just  tight  enough  to  stand  alone  in  the 
stick,  nor  crowding  it  so  hard  that  it  requires  an  effort 
to  get  it  out  of  the  stick.  Having  adjusted  his  line 
properly,  he  transfers  his  composing-rule  above  the  line, 
and  proceeds  in  the  same  manner  till  his  stick  is  full, 
when  he  empties  the  stick  upon  a  galley  of  wood  or 
brass,  made  to  hold  the  type.  In  picking  up  his  type 
the  compositor  looks  only  at  the  nich,  and  picks  it  up 
so  as  to  put  it  into  his  stick  without  turning.  The  ex- 
perienced compositor  can  tell  at  once  whether  he  has 
got  an  i,  r,  s,  or  t,  by  the  sense  of  touch ;  although  all 
these  letters  are  so  nearly  alike  in  thickness  that  an  in- 
experienced person  can  hardly  perceive  the  difference. 

9.  In  this  manner  he  proceeds  till  his  take  is  fin- 
ished, and  he  receives  the'  7nake-up  from  the  compositor 
who  had  the  take  before  him.-^  The  page  should  al- 
ways be  made  up  to  an  exact  number  of  leaded  lines,  if 
the  matter  is  leaded,  with  a  blank  line  and  lead  at  bot- 
tom. This  is  very  important,  where  more  than  one 
kind  of  type  is  used,  as,  if  it  is  not  done  at  the  begin- 
ning, pages  of  matter  may  occur  which  wiU  either  be 
half  a  line  short  or  long,  —  enough  to  spoil  what  is  in- 
tended for  a  handsome  book. 

10.  When  a  sufficient  number  of  pages  for  a  sheet 
are  made  up,  they  are  taken  to  an  imposing-stone,  and 
laid  in  place,  so  that  when  the  sheet  is  printed  the  pages 
will  fold  properly.     The  chase  and  furniture  are  then 

1  It  is  the  usual  practice  now  for  one  person  to  make  up  a  whol* 
book,  both  for  convenience  and  speed. 


TECHNICAL  TERMS.  101 

put  around  the  pages,  and  the  form  is  locked  up  so  that 
it  can  be  lifted  and  carried  to  the  press.  The  chase  is 
an  iron  frame,  with  two  cross-bars,  and  the  furniture 
consists  of  the  gutters,  which  are  strips  of  wood  or  metal 
put  between  the  pages  which  come  side  by  side ;  the 
head-sticks,  between  the  head  of  the  page  and  the  cross- 
bar; the  sticks  between  the  side  of  the  page  and  the 
cross-bar,  called  reglets ;  and  the  side-sticks  and  foot- 
sticks,  which  are  bevelled  pieces  at  the  side  and  foot  of 
the  pages  respectively,  between  which  and  the  chase  are 
inserted  wedges  called  quoins,  which  are  driven  so  as  to 
lock  up  the  form  by  means  of  a  mallet  and  shooting- 
stick.  If  the  matter  is  to  be  stereotyped  or  electro- 
typed,  two  or  three  pages  are  locked  up  side  by  side 
in  a  small  chase ;  but  instead  of  gutters,  side-leads  are 
used  between  the  pages  and  on  each  side. 

11.  An  impression  is  then  taken  of  the  form,  called 
a  proof,  which  is  given  to  the  proof-reader  to  be  read, 
together  with  the  copy.  After  reading  it,  the  reader 
returns  it  to  the  compositor,  whose  duty  it  is  to  correct 
all  the  marks  made  and  the  imperfections  noted  by  the 
proof-reader,  and  in  doing  this  to  preserve  proper  spacing 
throughout,  no  matter  how  much  overrunning  his  blun- 
ders may  cost  him.  The  reader  has  no  right  to  make 
alterations  from  the  copy,  except  to  spell  in  accordance 
with  the  system  of  the  office,  and  such  slight  changes 
in  punctuation  and  capitals  as  the  regular  stjde  of  the 
work  requires,  and  which  every  compositor  ought  to 
know.  But  he  should  not  undertake  to  reform  the 
punctuation  of  an  author  entirely,  even  if  it  is  errone- 
ous ;  or  even  to  correct  grammatical  blunders  or  awk- 
ward expressions,  —  much  less,  errors  of  statement  or 
fact.     These  should  be  left  to  the  second  proof,  and  b© 


102  REMARKS   ON  COMPOSITION. 

referred  to  the  author  for  his  sanction  before  they  are 
changed.  Besides,  it  is  not  the  compositor's  business 
to  correct  them  without  being  paid  for  it.  Bad  copy  is 
no  excuse  for  typographical  errors,  however ;  these  are 
all  the  result  of  carelessness. 

12.  If  the  proof  taken  after  correction  shows  that 
marks  have  not  been  properly  corrected ;  that  bad 
spacing  has  been  made,  either  by  crowding  in  letters 
and  spacing  too  thin,  or  by  overspacing  to  make  up  for 
a  doublet ;  or  that  broken  letters  have  been  left  uncor- 
rected, or  others  broken  in  making  the  corrections ;  or 
that  spaces  are  left  sticking  up  so  as  to  disfigure  the 
proof;  or  that  letters  are  slipped  by  the  leads  at  the 
end  of  the  lines ;  —  the  compositor  must  again  con-ect 
the  proof  without  charge ;  as  the  author  ought  not  to 
pay  for  it  with  his  own  corrections,  and  if  the  propri- 
etor pays  for  it,  he  virtually  offers  a  premium  on  slov- 
enly workmanship,  or  if  he  allows  it  to  pass  without 
being  corrected,  he  spoils  the  symmetry  of  the  book. 

13.  The  subject  of  spacing  is  so  important  that  we 
quote  the  following  from  "  The  American  Printer,"  by 
Thomas  MacKellar,  recently  published  at  Philadelphia. 

"Close  spacing  is  as  unworkmanlike  as  ■wide  spacing,  and 
neither  ought  to  be  permitted  except  in  very  narrow  measures  ; 
and,  frequently,  even  then  witli  care  it  might  partly  be  pre- 
vented. What  is  commonly  called  the  thick  space  is  the  proper 
separator  between  each  word  ;  though  this  rule  cannot  always  be 
adhered  to  in  narrow  measures  when  large  type  is  used.  It  is 
not  sufficient  merely  to  have  a  line  here  and  there  uniformly 
spaced  :  a  careful  compositor  will  give  every  page  that  uniform- 
ity of  appearance  which  is  a  chief  excellency 

"Where  a  line  is  evenly  spaced,  and  yet  requires  justifica- 
tion,' the  additional  space  should  be  put  between  those  words  in 
the  line  where  it  will  be  least  observable  ;  viz.  a  d  and  an  h,  be- 
ing tall,  perpendicular  letters,  will  admit  an  increase  of  space 


SPACING.  103 

between  them,  but  not  more  than  a  middle  and  thin  space  to  a 

thick-spaced  line 

"Accurate  justification  is  absolutely  essential,  as  the  letters 
will  be  warped  sidewise  in  a  loose  line,  making  it  impossible  to 
get  a  fair  impression  from  the  type.  Besides,  the  letters  are 
liable  to  be  drawn  out  by  the  suction  of  the  rollers,  to  the  detri- 
ment of  the  foiTii  and  the  press." 

14.  The  foregoing  remarks  should  be  carefuUy  heeded 
by  the  compositor.  But  though  the  proper  space  in 
solid  or  thin-leaded  matter  is  the  thick  space,  yet  when 
matter  is  thick-leaded  the  space  should  be  increased  to 
an  en  quad  between  the  words,  making  only  the  same 
relative  difference  in  spacing  out  as  in  matter  which  is 
thick-spaced ;  and  when,  as  is  sometimes  done,  three  or 
four  leads  are  put  between  the  lines,  two  thick  spaces  is 
none  too  much  for  the  standard  spacing.  Short  lines 
of  poetry  are  sometimes  seen  thus  leaded,  with  thick 
spaces  only  between  the  words,  which  spoils  the  whole 
appearance  of  the  page.  Where  poetry  is  thick-leaded, 
a  proportionate  space  must  be  preserved  between  the 
stanzas. 

15.  In  tabular  work,  or  where  figures  occur  in  col- 
umns, useless  ciphers  before  figures  should  be  discarded, 
as  well  as  in  plain  matter;  e.  g.  Lat.  27°  8'  42",  not 
27°  08'  42".  On  the  contrary,  in  columns  of  figures 
with  decimal  numbers,  the  decimal  places  should  always 
be  filled  out ;  as,  if  some  decimals  consist  of  two  places, 
all  should  be  filled  to  two  places,  by  using  ciphers ;  as, 
28.44,  30.00,  30.10;  not  30.  or  30.1,  but  the  places 
filled  out  even. 

16.  In  this  connection  we  remark  that  the  comma 
and  period  should  always  be  cast  to  the  exact  thickness 
of  one  fourth  of  an  em,  as  figures  are  cast  to  just  one 
half  an  em.     In  this  way  only  can  matter  in  tables  be 


104  REMARKS  ON   COMPOSITION. 

kept  perfectly  straight,  and  besides,  even  if  the  period 
be  made  three  to  an  em,  it  is  unnecessarily  thick  and 
usually  has  a  shoulder,  and  looks  as  if  a  hair-space  were 
put  upon  one  side  of  it.  The  same  remark  applies  to 
the  semicolon  and  colon,  which  are  frequently  cast  with 
a  space  before  them,  which  is  not  enough  ordinarily, 
and  yet  even  if  a  hair-space  is  added  it  is  more  than 
enough,  especially  in  a  thin-spaced  line. 

17.  In  setting  up  mathematical  or  chemical  formulae, 
if  the  signs,  as  usual,  are  made  of  the  size  of  an  em 
quad,  a  thick  space  should  be  used  each  side  of  them ; 
but  if  they  are  made  smaller  than  the  body,  allowance 
should  be  made,  and  a  thinner  space  used,  as  should  be 
done  likewise  for  the  shoulder  of  an  Italic  capital ;  and 
where  a  letter  projects  over  the  body  an  additional 
space  should  be  put  after  it.  Where  capitals  are  used 
for  mathematical  symbols,  Italics  are  preferable,  and  are 
always  used  for  small  letters  :  the  small  letters  should 
have  a  thin  space  between  them,  but  the  shoulder  on 
an  Italic  capital  is  usually  sufficient.  If  Eoman  capi- 
tals are  used,  a  thin  space  should  be  put  between  them. 
Italics  are  generally  used  for  mathematical  symbols ; 
but  chemical  symbols  are  usually  printed  in  Eoman, 
although  sometimes  put  in  Italics. 

18.  In  formuliB  where  fractions  occur,  the  fractions 
should  usually  be  put  in  type  two  sizes  smaller  than  the 
main  type,  and  all  fractions  should  be  of  the  same  size ; 
i.  e.  a  fraction  in  Arabic  figures  should  not  be  put  in 
with  a  small  face,  because  the  compositor  has  that  type 
ready  made,  but  should  be  made  of  the  same  size  as  the 
fractions  in  which  letters  occur.  The  formula  should 
not  be  divided  when  it  is  possible  to  avoid  it ;  but  if 
a  division  is  necessary,  it  must  be  made  where  a  sign 


FORM  OF   THE  PAGE.  105 

comes  between  its  subdivisions,  and  between  the  two 
main  members  if  possible. 

19.  A  stereotype  plate  is  made  by  taking  a  mould 
from  the  type  when  made  into  pages,  either  in  plas- 
ter of  Paris,  papier-mache,  or  clay,  which  is  allowed  to 
harden  sufficiently  to  obtain  a  cast  in  type-metal.  The 
plates  can  be  finished  up  and  printed  off,  and  then 
packed  away  in  boxes  in  a  small  compass,  to  be  printed 
from  again  without  resetting  the  type  whenever  another 
edition  is  called  for. 

20.  An  electrotype  is  made  from  a  mould  taken  in 
wax  properly  softened,  which  is  then  covered  over  with 
a  coating  of  fine  plumbago,  which  can  be  done  in  the 
mould  without  injury  to  the  finest  lines  of  the  finest 
cut,  thus  producing  a  metal  surface  upon  which  a  thin 
coating  or  shell  of  copper  is  deposited  by  means  of  a 
galvanic  battery.  This  shell  is  then  backed  up  to  the 
requisite  thickness  for  printing  from,  as  in  a  stereotype 
plate.  This  process  is  more  expensive  than  stereo- 
typing, but  it  is  much  superior  in  fineness,  and  is  also 
much  more  durable,  inasmuch  as  copper  is  harder  than 
type-metal,  and,  where  thousands  of  impressions  are  to 
be  taken,  is  altogether  the  cheapest. 

21.  In  determining  the  form  of  a  page  of  an  oblong 
shape,  whatever  its  size,  a  certain  proportion  should  al- 
ways be  maintained.  The  diagonal  measure  of  a  page 
from  the  folio  in  the  upper  corner  to  the  opposite  lower 
corner  should  be  just  twice  the  width  of  the  page. 
This  is  no  arbitrary  technical  rule,  but  is  in  conform- 
ity to  the  law  of  proportion  establishing  the  line  of 
beauty ;  it  applies  equally  to  all  objects  of  similar 
shape,  and  satisfies  the  eye  completely.  A  long  brick- 
shaped  page  or  book  will  not  look  well,  luiwever  nicely 


106  REMARKS  ON   COMPOSITION. 

it  may  be  printed.  Wlien  we  come  to  a  quarto  or 
square  page,  the  true  proportion  of  the  diagonal  to  the 
width  will  be  found  to  be  as  lOJ  :  6|,  — the  size  of  a 
good-shaped  quarto,  —  instead  of  2  :  1,  as  in  the  oblong, 
or  octavo.  And  this  shape  also  proves  as  satisfactory 
to  the  eye  as  the  former  one.  However  large  or  small 
the  page  may  be,  these  proportions  should  be  main- 
tained for  a  handsome  book. 

22.  The  first  page  of  the  text  of  a  book  should  have 
about  two  thirds  of  the  matter  of  a  full  page.  Where 
chapters  or  other  divisions  occur,  a  uniform  sinkage  of 
the  same  division  should  be  kept  up  through  the  book. 
In  poetry  this  should  also  be  done  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible ;  but  allowance  may  be  made  for  the  different 
stanzas  which  occur,  so  that  they  may  be  divided  prop- 
erly. A  useless  repetition  of  a  half-title  over  the  first 
page  following  should  be  avoided. 

23.  In  measuring  a  book,  the  square  of  the  page  is 
taken  by  finding  the  number  of  ems  in  a  line,  and  also 
the  number  in  the  length  of  the  page,  including  blank 
line  and  leads,  and  multiplying  them  together.  One 
page  of  the  text  of  this  book  measures  22|  ems  in 
width,  and  41  ems  in  length,  and  consequently  con- 
tains 923  ems.  A  page  of  the  smaller  type,  like  the 
List  of  Abbreviations,  measures  31  ems  in  width,  and 
56  in  length,  consequently  containing  1,736  ems.  All 
types  larger  than  Pica  are  by  printers'  rules  measured 
as  Pica. 

24.  Extracts  from  a  book,  in  prose,  should  always  be 
at  least  one  size  smaller  than  the  regular  text,  and  in 
poetry,  two  sizes  smaller.  Where  a  line  of  poetry  is 
quoted  incidentally,  three  sizes  smaller  than  the  text 
should  be  used,  at  least  in  the  larger  types.     Notes  at 


SIZES  OF  TYPE.  107 

the  foot  of  the  page  are  usually  three  sizes  smaller  than 
the  text ;  i.  e.  Bourgeois  for  Pica,  Brevier  for  SmaU 
Pica,  Minion  for  Long  Primer,  and  Xonparoil  for  Bour- 
geois. A  foot-note  should  never  be  put  at  the  end  of 
the  last  line  of  another  note,  but  two  short  notes  may 
be  put  in  the  same  line. 

SIZES  OF   TXTE. 

1.  The  types  in  common  use  are  given  below,  in  the 
order  of  their  size.  The  faces  of  types  of  the  same 
body  are  so  varying,  that  it  is  useless  to  give  speci- 
mens, as  the  best  printer,  especially  in  a  small  type, 
cannot  always  determine  its  size. 

2.  The  largest  book  type  used  is  Great  Primer,  and 
this  mainly  in  Primers  and  books  for  children.  But 
many  editions  of  the  Bible  have  been  printed  in  this 
type,  and  also  the  text  of  many  large  books  of  engrav- 
ings and  plates. 

3.  English  is  not  very  much  used  ;  but  Prayer  Books 
and  Primers  are  often  printed  in  it. 

4.  Pica  is  a  type  very  much  used,  and  the  text  of 
the  standard  Histories  in  both  England  and  America, 
as  well  as  many  important  scientific  and  illustrated 
works,  and  Sermons  and  Addresses,  are  printed  in  this 
type.  Bancroft's,  Prescott's,  and  Ticknor's  works  were 
all  first  printed  in  Pica,  and  the  Memoirs  of  the  Ameri- 
can Academy  are  in  the  same  type. 

5.  Small  Pica  is  the  type  of  the  principal  Quarterlies 
of  England  and  America,  and  the  North  American  Re- 
view has  always  been  printed  upon  it,  as  are  also  the 
International,  and  others.  It  is  also  the  type  in  which 
the  text  of  almost  all  laAV  books  and  law  reports  is 
printed,  as  well  as  most  city  and  town  documents. 


108  SIZES  OF  TYPE. 

6.  Long  Primer  is  probably  used  more  than  any  oth- 
er type  for  book-work.  Most  of  the  noted  editions  of 
works  of  fiction  are  printed  upon  this  type,  and  it  is 
much  used  for  poetry,  and  also  for  aU  sorts  of  miscella- 
neous work. 

7.  Bourgeois  is  the  type  used  on  most  of  the  monthly 
magazines  published  in  this  country,  as  the  Atlantic, 
Harper's,  and  Scribner's.  It  is  also  used  extensively 
for  notes  to  Pica  books. 

8.  Brevier  is  used  for  notes  on  law  books,  and  for 
the  smaller  type  on  the  montlily  Magazines ;  and  also  in 
printing  much  of  the  literature  in  a  cheap  form  which 
is  now  so  common. 

9.  Minion  is  very  much  used  on  newspapers,  and  also 
for  head-notes  in  law  reports,  and  for  foot-notes  to  Long 
Primer. 

10.  Nonpareil  is  very  generally  used  for  tabular  work, 
for  side-notes,  and  also  upon  newspapers. 

11.  Agate,  next  in  size,  is  not  very  much  employed 
in  book-work,  but  answers  a  good  purpose  for  advertise- 
ments in  newspapers. 

12.  Pearl  is  the  smallest  type  of  any  practical  use  in 
printing,  and  many  Bibles  are  printed  upon  it.  Two 
smaller  sizes  have  been  made,  called  Diamond  and  Bril- 
liant ;  but  they  are  worse  than  useless,  as  no  one  can 
read  them  except  at  the  risk  of  total  blindness.  They 
only  serve  to  show  the  nicety  of  the  human  eye  and 
hand,  which  can  cut  and  cast  types  so  small,  and  yet 
so  perfect,  that,  When  seen  through  a  magnifying-glass, 
they  appear  like  distinct  and  beautiful  types  of  a  larger 
size. 


DIMENSIONS  OF  BOOKS  AND  PAPER.     109 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

DIMENSIONS   OF  BOOKS  AND  PAPER. 

1.  The  dimensions  of  books  when  they-  were  all 
printed  upon  the  hand  press  were  very  well  defined 
by  the  terms  folio,  quarto,  etc.  They  were  generally 
printed  upon  what  is  termed  medium  paper,  20  X  24 
inches  in  dimensions.  A  sheet  of  this  size,  folded 
once,  makes  a  folio ;  again,  a  quarto ;  still  again,  an 
octavo;  then,  a  square  16mo;  again,  a  32mo ;  and  so 
on  to  64mo,  and  even  128mo.  Besides  these  sizes  there 
are  two  others  intermediate,  the  12mo  and  18mo.  The 
oblong  16mo  was  printed  on  a  different  sheet  of  paper, 
18  X  28  inches  in  dimensions.  The  different  sizes  of 
books,  therefore,  measure  about  as  follows ;  it  being  un- 
derstood that  the  sheet  is  printed  on  both  sides,  so  that 
a  folio  has  four  pages  to  a  sheet ;  a  quarto,  eight ;  etc. 


Inches. 

Folio 20  X  12 

Quarto 12  X  10 

Octavo 10  X    6 

12nio 8X5 


Inches. 
16mo  (square)  .  .  .  .  6X5 
16mo  (oblong)  .     .     .     .     7  X  4J 

18mo C§  X  4 

32mo 5X3 


2.  For  quarto  and  octavo  a  sheet  19X2-1  inches  has 
been  found  to  give  the  best  shape,  but  one  20  X  24 
inches  is  the  best  for  duodecimo.  The  18mo  is  dis- 
carded totally  nowadays,  as  it  requires,  after  the  first 
side  is  printed,  the  transposition  of  four  pages  to  make 
it  fold  properly,  and  then  leaves  two  insets  to  be  in- 
serted in  binding. 


110 


DIMENSIONS  OF  BOOKS  AND  PAPER. 


3.  Siuce  power  presses  have  been  invented  a  much 
larger  number  of  pages  cau  be  printed  at  one  time,  and 
although  on  a  platen  press  the  size  of  a  sheet  is  still 
limited  by  the  surface  which  will  take  a  good  impres- 
sion, yet  by  means  of  a  cylinder  press  any  size  which  is 
profitable  can  be  printed,  as  the  cylinder  only  touches 
the  form  at  a  single  point,  and  consequently  with  less 
strain  than  a  much  smaller  form  on  a  platen  press. 
Octavos  are  generally  printed  double,  or  sixteen  pages 
at  one  impression,  and  duodecimos  as  twenty-fours. 

4.  Paper  is  now  made  to  order  of  every  possible  size 
and  shape,  to  satisfy  the  taste  or  whim  of  any  author 
or  publisher.  It  is  put  up  in  quires  of  24  sheets  each, 
20  quires,  or  480  sheets,  thus  making  a  ream.  Some 
paper  is  put  up  25  sheets  to  a  quire,  and  this  seems  to 
be  a  simpler  arrangement,  as  one  ream  is  then  just 
500  sheets ;  but  the  old  practice  is  the  common  one, 

5.  Printers  reckon  a  ream  as  19  quires,  one  quire 
in  a  ream  being  allowed  them  by  usage  in  getting  the 
forms  ready.  For  500  copies  of  a  sheet,  11  quires  of 
paper  are  used ;  for  1000  copies,  21  quires  are  used,  and 
the  same  quantity  for  every  additional  1000. 

6.  The  common  standard  sizes  of  paper  now  made  in 


America  are  the  following  : 

Inches. 

Double  Medium,  12mo  23  X  41 

"  "        8vo  24  X  38 

lOmo  printed  as  24nio  22  X  37i 

12iiin  printed  as  16mo  20  X  31i 

Oblong  16mo      .     .     .  18  X  28 

Medium,  12mo   .     .     .  20  X  24 

8vo      ...  19  X  24 


Demy,  Printing 
"        Writing 
Folio, 

Crown,  " 
Foolscap,  " 
Letter  Paper 
Commercial  Note 


Inches. 
17  X  22 
15  X  20 
]7  X  22 
15  X  19 
13  X  16 
10  X  16 
5X    8 


INDEX. 


Abbreviations,  remarks  on,  50,  51. 
List  of,  52-58. 

Accents,  etc.,  87-96.  English,  87. 
Greek,  88-90.  Latin,  90,  91. 
French,  91,  92.  Italian,  93. 
Grerman,  94.  Spanish,  95. 
Other  Modern  Languages,  95, 
96. 

Adverbs,  compounds  of,  64. 

Antepenult,  8[»,  n. 

Anybody,  Anything,  60. 

Apostrophe,  uses  of,  36,  37. 

Books,  measurement  of,  in  ems, 
106.     Dimensions,  109. 

Botanical  Names,  47,  48. 

Brackets,  use  of,  35. 

Capitals,  rules  for,  43-48. 

Chemical  Work,  symbols  in,  104. 

Citations,  49,  50. 

Colon,  use  of,  24,  25. 

Colors,  compounds  of,  63. 

Comma,  rules  for  the  use  of,  9-21. 
Inverted,  21.  Used  for  quota- 
tions, 39-42.  In  citations,  50. 
Thickness  of,  103. 

Composition,  remai'ks  on,  97-107. 
Technical  Terms,  ib. 

Compound  Words,  59-66.  Use- 
less Compounds,  00,  61. 

Danish,  95. 

Dash,  uses  of,  32-34. 

Dates,  mode  of  printing,  19,  34. 

Decimals,  how  printed,  27,  103. 

Diseresis,  use  of,  59,  87. 


Dimensions  of  Books,  109.  Of 
Paper,  110. 

Dutch,  95. 

Electrotype,  how  made,  105. 

Em,  meaning  of,  97,  106 

English,  accents  in,  87. 

Everybody,  Everything,  60. 

Exclamation  Point,  29-31. 

Extracts,  size  of  type  for,  106. 

Fellow,  compounds  of,  63. 

Final  Consonants,  doubling  of,  71. 

Final  c  or  ck,  73. 

Final  ise,  or  ize,  73. 

Final  or  or  o?<r,  73. 

Final  e  and  ?/,  74. 

Foot-notes,  size  of  type  for,  107.- 

Fractions,  61. 

French,  91,  92. 

Geographical  Kegions,  capital- 
ized, 45. 

German,  94. 

Greek,  Accents,  etc.,  88-90. 
Modern,  96. 

Hebrew,  96. 

Hyphen,  uses  of,  59-70. 

Interrogation  Point,  28,  29. 

Italian,  93. 

Italics,  use  of,  48. 

Justification,  100,  103. 

Latin,  90,  91. 

Law  Reports,  references  in,  50. 

Leaders,  periods  used  for,  27. 

London  Postal  Districts,  53,  n. 

Lower-case  letters,  97. 


112 


INDEX. 


Mathematical  Work,  composition 
of,  48,  104. 

Monosyllables,  how  spelled,  71. 

Names  from  Foreign  Languages, 
manner  of  writing,  44,  45,  89- 
96.  Latin,  90.  French,  92. 
German,  94. 

Nouns,  compounds  of,  62,  63. 

Numbers,  how  printed,  51.  Deci- 
mals, 27.  Fractions,  01.  Com- 
pounded, 02. 

Numerals,  Roman  and  Arabic, 
26.     Compounded,  62. 

Oh!  and  0,  difference  between, 
29,  30. 

Old  and  New  Style,  34. 

Oneself,  63. 

Orthography,  Rules  of,  71-76. 

Paper,  Dimensions  of,  109,  110. 
Remarks  on,  ib. 

Paragraphs,  38,  39. 

Parentheses,  use  of,  35. 

Participles,  compounds  of,  63. 

Penult,  89,  n. 

Period,  use  of,  26,  27.  Thick- 
ness of,  103. 

Personal  Epithets,  compound,  64. 

Plural,  in  decimals,  27  n.  Of 
Figures  and  Letters,  37.  Pos- 
sessive, 37.  In  Abbreviations, 
51.     Formation  of,  75,  76. 


37. 


Ex- 
Re- 


Points  of  the  Compass,  61. 

Political  Parties,  capitalized,  46. 

Portuguese,  95. 

Possessive    Case,    rule    for. 
Compounds  in,  63. 

Prefixes,  compounded,  64. 

Proof-Sheet,  specimen  of,  6. 
planation  of  marks,  7. 
marks  for  authors,  8. 

Proportions  of  page,  105,  106. 

Quotations,  use  of  marks,  39-42. 
Quoting  literally,  42. 

Religious  Sects,  capitalized,  46. 

School,  compounds  of,  63. 

Scripture  References,  49. 

Self,  compounds  of,  63. 

Semicolon,  use  of,  22-24. 

Sovereigns,  names  of,  how  print- 
ed, 51. 

Spacing,  remarks  on,  102, 103. 

Spanish,  95. 

Stereotype,  how  made,  105. 

Swedish,  96. 

Syllabication,  66-70. 

Titles,  how  capitalized,  45,  46. 
Abbreviation  of,  50,  51.  Com- 
pounded, 61. 

Type,  sizes  of,  107, 108. 

Words  variously  spelled,  List  of, 
77-86. 

Zoological  Names,  47,  48. 


University  Press :  John  Wilson  &  Son,  Cambridge. 


NGLISH  AS  IT  SHOULD 


BE  WRITTEN 


*     * 


Handbooka  for 

All  Lovers  of 

Correct 

Language 


Neatly   bound    in   cloth       50  cents  each 


MISTAKES  IN  WRITING  ENGLISH  AND  HOW  TO  AVOID  THEM 

For  the  use  of  all  who  teach,  write,  or  speak  the  language.  By  Marshall 
T.  BiGELOW,  author  of  "  Punctuation  and  other  Typographical 
Matters." 

PUNCTUATION  AND  OTHER   TYHOCRAPHICAL   MATTERS 

For  the  use  of  Printers,  Au'.hors,  Teachers,  and  Scholars.  By  Marshall 
T.  BiGELOw,  Corrector  at  the  University  Press,  Cambridge. 

1000   BLUNDERS   IN  ENGLISH 

A  Handbook  of  Suggestions  in  Reading  and  Speaking.  By  HarlaS  M. 
Ballard,  A.M.,  Principal  of  Lenox  Academy,  Lenox,  Mass. 

HINTS  AND    HELPS    New  edition  revised  $1.25. 

For  those  who  write,  print,  or  read.     By  Benjamin  Drew. 

ENGLISH  SYNONYMES  DISCRIMINATED 

By  Rev.  Richard  Whately,  D.D.,  the  Archbishop  of  Dublin.  A  new 
edition. 

SOULE  &    CAMPBELLS  PRONOUNCING   HANDBOOK 

Of  Words  often  mispronounced,  and  of  words  as  to  which  a  Choice  of  Pro- 
nunciation is  allowed.     3,000  Mistakes  in  Pronunciation  corrected. 

CAMPBELLS  HANDBOOK  OF  ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 

With  an  Appendix  showing  the  Correct  Uses  of  Prepositions. 

HINTS  ON  LANGUAGE 

In  connection  with  Sight  Reading  and  Writing  in  Primary  and  Intermediate 
Schools.  By  S.  Arthur  Bent,  A.M..  Superintendent  ol  Public 
Schools,  Clinton,  Mass. 

FORGOTTEN  MEANINGS 

Or,  An  Hour  with  the  Dictionary.  By  Alfred  Waites  author  o( 
"  Student's  Historical  Manual." 

SHORT  STUDIES  OF  AMERICAN  AUTHORS 

By  Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson,  author  of  "  Young  Folks'  History 
of  the  United  States,"  "  Young  Folks'  American  Explorers," 
"  Malbone,"  "  Outdoor  Papers,"  "  Oldport  Days,"  "  Army  Life  in  a 
Black  Regiment,"  "  Atlantic  Essays,"  etc. 

HINTS  ON   WRITING  AND  SPEECH-MAKING 

By  Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson. 
UNIVERSAL   PHONOGRAPHY 

Or,  Shorthand  by  the  "  Allen  Method."  A  Self:instructor,  whereby  more 
Speed  than  Long-Hand  Writing  is  gained  at  the  First  Lesson,  and 
additional  Speed  at  each  Subsequent  Lesson.  By  G.  0.  Allen. 
Principal  of  the  Allen  Stenographic  Institute,  Boston. 

told  by  all  boohsellers,  and  sent  by  mail,  postpaid,  on  receipt  of  price 

LEE  AND  SHEPAED  PubUshers  Boston 


••Just  as  the  twig  is  bent,  the  tree  's  inclined.' 


LESSONS  ON  MANNERS. 

By  EDITH   E.  WIGGIN. 


Price,  cloth,  50  cents  ;    School  Edition,  tard,  30  cents,  net. 


This  liltle  work  is  one  which  cannot  fail  to  make  an  Impression  on 
Buch  of  its  readers  as  endorse  the  old  adage. 

Prolific  in  suggestion  as  to  proper  conduct  in  connection  with  the 
various  matters  of  deportment  upon  which  our  boys  and  girl*  so 
frequently  trip  and  fall,  it  is  a  mine  of  happy  hints,  useful  alike  in 
modelling  youth  in  that  most  gracious  of  all  attainments,  a  handsome 
behavior,  and  in  aiding  in  rectifying  the  many  errors  in  which  one 
pnd  all  are  so  prone  to  entangle  themselves. 

Easily  comprehended  words  and  concise  sentences,  enlivened  by 
entertaining  anecdotes,  lend  a  charm  to  the  book  that  will  find  it 
hosts  of  eager  readers  among  the  little  folks  of  the  land,  while  much 
can  be  gleaned  from  it  by  their  advisers  that  will  aid  in  shaping 
their  course  aright. 

It  will  be  found  especially  valuable  for  use  as  a  supplementary 
reader  in  the  school-room,  aad  we  urgently  recommend  the  book  t( 
tiie  attention  of  all  educators  with  this  end  in  view. 

State  Normal  School, 

Salem,  Mass.,  March  12, 1884. 

I  am  obliged  to  you  for  a  copy  of  Miss  Edith  E.  Wiggln's  book. 
It  contains  a  great  many  valuable  hints  in  regard  to  the  manners  of 
childrea  at  home  and  elsewhere.  I  am  sure  that  this  b  K)k  in  thn 
bands  of  teachers  and  parents  cannot  fail  to  be  highly  usefal. 

Yoora  truly, 

D.    1    HAQAJt 


SHORTHAND  WITHOUT  A  MASTER. 


Universal  Phonography; 

OR 

SHORTHAND  BY  THE "  ALLEN  ETHOD." 

A.  Self -Instructor,  whereby  more  Speed  than  Liong:-Haud 
Writing  is  gained  at  the  First  Lesson,  and 
additional  Speed  at  each  sub- 
sequent Lesson. 

By    G.    G.    ALLEN, 
Principal  of  the  Allen  Stenographic  In«titute,  Boston. 

Price  50  Cents. 


There  Is  scarcely  any  acquirement  so  helpful  to  the  student,  scientist, 
or  professional  man.  as  shorthand  writing.  Heretofore,  all  the  methotis 
have  requireit  so  long  a  time  before  one  could  become  so  jiroficient  as  to 
make  it  of  any  udvautage,  tnat  men  in  middle  life  or  busy  men  have  not 
b^en  able  to  Kive  the  tnno  io  learn  It ;  but  I'y  the  '"Allen  Jlcthod"  one  can 
almost  111  ■'  ihe  idle  mo  iients  of  a  bn-^y  life,"  certainly,  in  an  hour  a  day 
foriwo  or  three  mouihs,  become  so  expert  as  to  reporta  lecture  verbatim. 
From  Rkv.  Dr.  THOMAS  HILL,  Late  President  of  Harvard  College. 

ToRTLAND.  June  2.  1883. 

I  most  coidially  indorse  the  main  principles  of  Jlr.  Allen's  method  of 
presenting  plionograiihy ;  thev  all  are  thoroughly  practical,  and  must,  of 
necessity,  lead  to  better  practical  results  than  the  analytic  methods  uBu- 
ally  pursued.  I  hope  Sir.  Allen's  methods  will  bring  into  more  general 
use  tlie  phouogiaphic  style  of  shorthand. 
From  R.   M.  Pflsifkb,  of  K.  M.  Pulsifkr  &  Co.,  Proprietors  of  the 

"Boston  Jdorald." 

HB  "Her*.ld."  Boston,  Aug.  17.1881. 
Dea     Sir:—i  have  for  x.ia  past  eight  months  employed  as  my  private 
stenographer  a  gentleman  educated  at  your  Institute,  and  recommended 
to  me  by  you.    1  have  been  entirely  satisfied  with  the  Service  wliich  he 
has  rendered.  Respectfully  yours,  R.  M.  PULSIFEK. 

37  Matthews.  Harvard  College. 
I  had  taken  but  two  lessons  of  you,  and  at  my  third  lesson  1  wrote 
three  times  as  fast  as  an  ordinary  long-hand  writer. 

S.  B.  PEARMAIN". 

1C4  Hanover  Street,  Boston. 
After  taking  a  two  months'  cou'se  1  wrote  from  mailer  with  which  I 
was  entirely  unfamiliar,  one  hundred  and  forty  voids  per  minute. 

B.  C.  SlICKNEY. 

T>Vi  Tninn  Street,  Boston. 

Before  completing  a  three  months' course  I  coiiUl  write  one  hundred 
and  sixty-five  words  per  minute.  I  find  no  diflicully  in  taking  down 
sermons,  speeches,  lectures,  etc.,  verbatim.        THOMAS  F.  WacKEY. 

I  have  takei*  a  three  months'  course  of  lessons,  .nnd  am  riow  ioing  law 
reporting.  MINXIE  E.  CONLAN. 

Reporting  for  some  of  the  best  Boston  lawyers,  she  earns  more  In  a  da} 
than  ordinary  lady  employes  cau  la  a  weelc. 


•'  Your  Little  Manual  Contains  the  Cube  Root  of  Parlla- 
mentary  Law."  —  Charles  Sumner. 

WARRINGTON'S  MANUAL: 

^  IHaitual 

TOR  THE  INFORMATION  OF  OFFICERS  AND  MEMBERS  OP 
LEGISLATURES,   CONVEN'' *ONS,    SOCIETIES,    CORPO- 
RATIONS,   ORDERS,    ETC.,    IN    THE     PRACTICAL 
GOVERNING     AND     MEMBERSHIP     OF    ALL 
SUCH    BODIES,    ACCORDING    TO   THE 
PARLIAMENTARY    LAW    AND 
PRACTICE      OF      THE 
UNITED  STATES. 

By  WILLIAM   S.  ROBINSON, 

Clerk  of  the  Massachusetts  House  of  Representatives, 
from  1862  to  1873. 

Price,  50  Cents. 

"  It  is  a  mixtui  rule,  advnce,  and  '  parliametitary '  principle,  founded 
on  the  experience  ..nd  the  obvious  necessities  of  bodies  governed  by  the 
'  parhamentary  law.'  _  As  everybody  knows,  an  assembly  may,  if  it 
pleases,  make  rules  for  itself  diametrically  opposed  to  this  law  or  principle. 
Those  'rules'  are  innumerable,  and  it  is  of  no  practical  use  to  try  to  classify, 
illustrate,  or  mention  them.  Such  of  them  as  are  based  on  correct  prin- 
ciples will  be  found  here.  But,  for  the  largest  part,  this  book  seeks  to 
give  the  reasons  for  the  ordinary  and  the  best  practice  of  the  best  ordered 
bodies.  Given  the  reaso7!s,  and  the  practice  adjusts  itself;  the  assembly 
transacts  its  work  speedily  and  with  proper  regard  to  the  rights  of  all ;  and 
officers  are  prepared  to  meet  objections  and  to  answer  questions  with  little 
or  no  hesitation.  Witlioiit  the  reasons,  members  and  officers  have  great 
difficulty  in  interpreting  tlie  rules,  and  in  coming  to  iust  results  without 
troublesome  delays."  — /V^y^c^. 

"  Mr.  Kobinson  is  perhaps  better  known  than  any  other  pseudonymous 
writer  in  the  Commoiuve^ilth  as  a  man  of  clear,  sharp,  incisive  intellect, 
which,  applied  to  rules  of  order,  as  it  must  necessarily  have  been  in  his 
many  years  of  clerkly  experience,  could  not  have  failed  to  make  him 
master  of  the  subject.  The  points  are  stated  with  great  precision  and 
conciseness,  and  the  indexing  is  so  perfect  that  any  question  of  parlia- 
mentary law  or  practice  may  be  settled  by  a  rapid  glance;  while  the  size 
of  the  Httle  volurne  tits  it  for  the  pocket,  so  that  a  person  who  apprehends 
any  orcasion  for  its  use  need  never  go  unarmed  with  its  authority." 

—  Salem  Gaaett*. 


"MOST   KIDICULOUS  MISTAKES"   AVOIDED. 

SYNONYIS  DISGRIMINATED' 

BY 

RICHARD    WHATELY,    D.  D., 

Archbishop  of  Dublin. 

A  new  edition.  50  cents. 

"While  especially  adapted  to  the  use  of  writers  and  those  who 
desire  to  express  themselves  in  exact  and  discrimiuating 
terms,  this  book  will  be  of  interest  to  every  one  who  may  wish 
to  gain  more  precision  in  the  use  of  our  language.  In  com- 
piling this  valuable  work,  the  accomplished  author  has  de- 
parted from  the  customary  methods,  and  has  not  contented  him- 
self with  giving  merely  the  apparent  synonyms  in  the  lan- 
guage, but  elaborates  on  the  nice  distinction  in  the  meaning 
of  common  words,  usually  considered  synonymous  terms.  In 
this  feature  consists  the  especial  importance  of  Dr.  Whately's 
Tolume.    / 

"  Words  apparently  synonymous  —  and  really  so  in  the 
great  majority  of  instances  —  have  nevertheless  each  an  ap- 
propriate meaning,  which  on  certain  occasions  is  made  to 
appear.  The  propriety  ofmeaniiig  is  known,  a  priori,  by  the 
scholar  who  is  acquainted  with  the  etymology  of  the  word,  but 
the  person  who  has  collected  its  meaning  only  from  its  use  is 
ever  liable  to  mistakes  and  the  mosi  ridiculous  misfakes;  be- 
cause perhaps  in  his  experience,  it  has  never  been  used  in  such 
a  flianner  as  to  demonstrate  its  peculiar  signification."  To 
■uch  this  book  by  a  distinguished  author  will  prove  invaluable. 


THE  FIRST  TEACHER  FOR  LITTLE  FOLKS. 

FOR  THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  SENSES 

FOR  YOUNG  CHILDREN. 

By  HORACE  GRANT, 

Author  of  "  Arithmetic  for  Young  Children." 

Edited  by  Willard  Small. 
Cloth.     Price,  50  cents. 

For  the  purpose  of  producing  instruction  and  amu?emeut 
for  young  children,  too  young  to  read  or  write,  this  little  w^'k 
has  been  prepared.  The  special  object  is  to  excite  little  cnii- 
dren  to  examine  surrounding  objects  correctly,  so  that  valuable 
knowledge  may  be  acquired,  wliile  the  attention,  memory, 
judgment,  and  invention  are  duly  exercised. 

In  exercises  such  as  those  which  compose  this  book,  the  most 
favorable  circumstances  may  be  seized  as  they  arise,  and  will 
therefore  produce  an  extraordinary  efiect.  Wherever  we  are, 
in  a  room,  garden,  field,  or  road,  in  the  morning  or  evening, 
winter  or  summer,  action  or  rest,  something  interesting  may 
be  extracted;  for  at  the  moment  when  the  attention  is  warmly 
excited,  an  event  may  be  turned  to  the  best  account.  The  val 
uable  habits  acquired  by  means  of  familiar  objects  and  petty 
events  may  gradually  be  extended  to  the  most  iinportaiu; 
subjects. 

ARITHMETIC  FOR  YOUN&  CHILDREN 

Being  a  aeries  of  Exercises  exemplifying  the  manner  in  which 
Arithmetic  should  be  taught  to  youug  children 

By  HoEACE  Grant. 
Ameri«ai  Edition,    Edited  by  Willard  Small. 
^  Price  50  cents. 

"Consists  of  a  series  of  exercises  illustrative  of  themanL»r 
In  which  the  first  steps  in  numbers  should  be  taught  to  young 
children.  We  pronounce  \x, first-rate.  The  primary  teacher 
will  And  it  a  great  aid  in  her  work.  It  is  rational  and  consis- 
tent. The  vaiiefy  of  style  and  method  used  lend  fresh  inter- 
est at  every  step." — Educational   Weekly. 

"The  forms  of  expressioi.  used  and  the  copiousness  of  illus- 
trations are  very  tar  in  advance  of  the  common  style  "it 
teaching  this  science  to  young  children. 

"It  is  thoroughly  rational  and  prepares  the  way  for  a  mora 
By8teJ«<atic  study  of  numbers  as  the  child  becomes  more  nia- 
turev  The  young  pupil  is  taught  to  think  and  speak  in  num- 
bers 1.1  the  first  stage  and  subsequently  unites  with  it  the  an 
of  writing  numbers.  It  is  correct  in  theor.''  and  apt  fot 
practice."— A'.  E.  Journal  cif  Education. 


BA3SOBOOK  OF   THB   TBLBFHOHBI. 


JtS"  BVEBTBODT  WAKT9 


The  Telephone. 


AN  ACCOUNT  OP  THB 


Ffcenomena  of  Electricity,   Magrnetism,  and  Sound,   as 

iDTolved  in  its  action;  •with  directions  for 

making  a  Speaking  Telephone. 


BT 


Prof.  A.  E.  DOLBEAR,  of  Tufts  College. 
Author  of  "  The  Abt  op  Pbojbctins." 

16mo.   Illustrated.    50  Cents. 


"An  Interestfng  little  book  upon  this  most  fascinating  subject, 
wlilch  Is  treated  in  a  very  clear  and  methodical  way.  First,  we  have 
a  thoroueh  review  of  the  discoveries  in  electricity,  then  of  magnetism, 
then  of  those  in  the  study  of  sound— pitch,  velocity,  timbre,  tone,  res- 
onance, sympathetic  vibrations,  etc.  From  these  the  telephone  is 
reached  and  by  i,hem  in  a  measure  explained."—  Hartford  Couranl. 

"  It  treats  of  electricity,  magnets,  the  galvanic  battery,  thermo-elec- 
tricity, magneto-electricity,  magnetic  induction,  and  all  the  appli- 
ances for  producing  the  wonderful  and  useful  results  that  have  already 
come  to  the  world  by  the  invention  of  the  telephone.  It  is  a  little 
book  that  will  be  desired  by  ail  classes  of  the  community:  neatly 
printed  and  tastefully  bound.  Every  young  person  in  the  land  should 
Become  familiar  with  the  principles  of  ;,aysical  science  involved  in 
this  discovery." — iV.ii'.  JoKmal  of  Education. 

"  TTiis  is  a  subject  of  much  interest  at  present,  and  Prof.  Polbeak's 
exposition  of  it  will  be  welcomed.  The  author  elucidates  the  phenom- 
ena of  electricity,  magnetism  and  sound,  as  involved  in  the  action  of 
the  telephone:  describes  the  workings  of  the  speaking  telephone,  and 
gives  directions  for  making  one.  The  author  is  specially  qualified  to 
write  on  the  subject,  as  he  is  the  inventor  of  the  telephone  which  he 
describes.  Ills  descriptions  are  plain,  and  are  helped  out  by  a  aoxen 
or  moru  sngravings."—  Boston  Journal. 


KVa  UUMTHM'B  HAHIIBOOK.** 


INSECTS : 

How  to  Catch,  and  How  to  Prepare  Them  for  the  Cabinbti 
Comprising  a  Manual  of  Instruction  for 
the  Field  Naturalist. 

BY  'WAJL.'2::E1R  F.  ]MLA.N"T0N", 

Author  of  " Taxidermy  Without  a  Master,"  "Handbook  of  Field 
Uotauy,"  etc. 

Illnstrated.    60  cents. 

The  Boston  Post  says:  "Are  you  Interested  In  bugs?  Do  you 
like  to  capture  the  wild  and  untamed  beetle,  the  Insatiable  potato 
bug,  and  the  festive  grasshoj-  er,  anu  impaling  tbem  on  pins,  see 
'em  througb  a  glass?  Then  you  want  to  know  just  the  correct 
way  to  do  it,  and  you  want  to  purchase  this  little  volume." 

"In  describing  the  outfit  nothing  essential  is  omitted,  and 
illustrations  help  to  make  plain  this  and  the  directions  for  pre- 
paring. Useful  instructions  are  added  as  to  the  construction  of  a 
cabinet,  time  and  places  to  hunt,  and  the  method  of  'printing 
butterflies.'  Every  boy  who  has  any  taste  for  natural  history 
fihould  have  this  neat  little  manual.  The  many  '  Agassiz  Clubs' 
which  have  sprung  up  among  the  youth  of  the  country  should  add 
it  to  tneir  libraries."  —  Chicayo  Advance. 

**OF  INESTIMABLE  VALUE  TO  TOUNG  BOTANISTS." 


FIELD   BOTAI^rr: 

A  Hand-Book  for  the  Collector.     Containing  Instructions  fbr 

Gathering  and  Preserving  Plants,  and  the  Formation  of  a 

Herbarium;   also,  Complete  Instructions  in  Leaf 

Photography,    Plant   Printing,   and   the 

Skeletonizing  of  Leaves.' 

BY    "W^I^TER    P.    MI^ISTTOIC". 

Illustrated.     Cloth,  50  cents. 

"A  most  valuable  companion.  The  amount  of  information  con- 
veyed in  the  small  compass  is  surprising."  —  DemoresVs  Monthly, 
New  York. 

"  It  Is  just  what  the  boys  and  girls  need  for  the  spring  campaign 
In  Botany,  and  at  the  modest  price  of  fifty  cents  is  accessible  to 
all."  —  Christian  lienister,  Boston. 

*'It  is  entirely  practical,  and  gives  the  collector  just  the  know- 
ledge required  to  render  his  work  permanent  and  satisfactory. 
Its  smallness  fits  It  to  be  carried  in  the  pocket,  which  ig  a  conoid- 
waXioa."  —  XationcU  Bo£)tist  If.  T. 


••THE   BOOK    IS   ADMIRABLBL* 


HANDBOOK 


OF 


LIGHT    GYMNASTICS. 

By   LUCY    B.    HUNT, 

Instructor  In  Gyianastlcs  at  Smith  (Female)  College,  Northampton,  Masa 

ninstrated.   Cloth,  50  cts. 


"  This  mannal  is  admirably  adapted  for  the  nse  of  teachers  and 
inpils  in  public  and  private  schools,  and  in  seminaries  and  col- 
eges,  as  well  as  a  guide  to  health-giving  exercises  in  the  homes, 
especially  for  girls.  Well-arranged  series  of  exercises  are  given 
in  free  gymnastics,  wand  exercises,  ring  exercises,  dumb-bells, 
procession,  mutual-help  exercises,  bean-Dags,  marching,  and  a 
practical  chapter  on  dress  suitable  for  gymnastic  exercises  to  be 
^aken  in.  All  these  exercises  have  been  carefully  selected  and 
thoroughly  tested,  and  can  be  safely  practised  by  any  person  in 
ordinary  health."  — Journal  of  Education. 

"Taking  the  system  of  Dr.  Dio  Lewis  as  a  foundation,  Misa 
Hunt  has,  during  her  experience  as  a  teacher,  taken  from,  added 
to,  and  altered  various  exercises,  until  the  course,  so  to  speak, 
has  assumed  the  order  now  presented  in  her  little  book,  a  course 
which,  if  carefully  followed,  will  make  the  maidens  of  America 
better  fitted  to  become  its  mothers."  —  N.  Y.  Mail  and  Express. 

"  It  is  designed  as  a  guide  to  teachers  of  girls,  but  it  will  bo 
found  <*  use  also  to  such  as  wish  to  practice  the  exercises  at 
home."  — JV".  Y.  World. 

"  A  volume  so  very  diminutive  that  one  can  hardly  realize  that 
it  contains  nearly  all  that  one  needs  for  the  teaching  or  practice 
of  light  gymnastics,  and  even  more  than  Dr.  Lewis's  clever  and 
amusing  voliune."  —  Budget. 

"  This  work  has  many  advantages.  It  is  inexpensive,  itris  con. 
venient.  it  is  condensed,  it  is  clear.  It  is  careful  to  avoid  any 
strained,  unnatural,  or  ungraceful  positions,  it  does  not  attempt 
to  make  a  gospel  of  gymnastics,  as  some  fanatics  have  done,"  — 
if.  7,  Christian  Advocate. 

"A  useful  little  manual,  by  a  teacher  of  much  experient.i.who 
embodies  in  tliis  little  work  the  best  results  of  her  knowledgti 
and  practice  of  the  modern  system  of  gymnastic  exercises  fo  l 
'rU'  Bchoola  and  ooUeges  ;  and  also  for  use  at  home." — JMmif 


PENS  AND  TYPES 

or  Hints  and  Helps  for  those  who  Write,  Print,  Teach,  Bead 

or  Learn.    By  Hexjamin  Drew.    Clo  h,  f  1.25. 

New  edition,  revised  and  enlp.rged. 

This  is  a  practical  worls  by  a  practical  man,  who  has  had 
many  years  of  experience  as  a  proof-reader,  and  gives  the 
most  valuable  information  to  all  who  write,  print  or  read. 

"An  invaluable  little  book  for  novices  in  literature  or  jour- 
nalism." —  Dimestic  Monthly,  New  York. 

"This  is  OHe  of  those  haady  volumes  which  cost  but  little 
money,  yet  do  a  great  service.  It  is  valuable  because  it  stim- 
ulates thought  and  independence  of  judgment."  —  Dover  (iV. 
H.)  Morning  Star. 

"With  this  valuable  handbook  on  his  study-table,  the  liter- 
ary man  would  not  so  often  go  astray.  We  commend  it  high- 
ly." —  Chicago  Herald. 

"The  information  is  imparted  in  a  very  lively  and  remem* 
bering  way."  —  Boston  Commonwealth. 

"If  the  author's  sensible  recommendations  to  those  writ- 
ing for  the  press  be  followed,  this  would  be  a  happier  sphere 
ior  editors  and  printers.  " —  Commercial  Bulletin. 


THE  STARS  AND  THE  EARTH 

or  Thoughts  upon  Space,  Time  and  Eternity.    With  an  intro- 
duction by  TnoMAS  Hill,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  late  Presi- 
dent of  Harvard  University.  Cloth,  50  cts. 

"  The  main  purpose  of  the  book  is  to  show,  from  the  laws  of 
light,  how  the  past  may  be  actually  present  to  God,  and  may 
hereafter  become  actually  present  to  men."  —  Churchman, 
New  York. 

"It  is  poetic  in  its  suggestions,  and  leaves  the  impression 
that  nature  gives  the  cue  to  things  hidden  and  mysterious. 
There  is  no  dogmatic  conclusion,  and  yet  the  dogmas  of  omni- 
presence and  omniscience  are  elucidated  by  it.  In  less  than 
one  hundred  pages  is  much  and  deep  philosophy."  —  Boston 
Commonwealth. 

"  We  commend  the  book  to  ihe  curious  and  thoughtful 
reader,  assuring  him  that  having  once  read  it  he  will  not  be 
lik  ly  ever  to  forgot  the  impressions  made  by  it."  —  Chicago 
Advance, 

"It  cannot  bat  be  valuable  to  the  student  of  science  as  well 
as  the  professor  of  religion,  and  tends  to  Dring  them  closer 
together  and  reconcile  them."—  t-otter'a  Montkl]/. 


THE  FOBES  ELOCUTIONARY  HANDBOOKS. 


FIYE-MINUTE  DECLAMATIONS 

FOR  SCHOOL  AND   COLLEGE 
Cloth,  50  Cents. 

FIYE-MINUTE  DECLAMATIONS 

Part  Second.    Cloth,  50  Cents, 

FIYE-MINUTE  RECITATIONS 

FOR  SCHOOL  AND  COLLEGK 
Cloth,  50  Cents. 

FIYE-MINUTE  READINGS 

Cloth,  so  Cents. 
Pupils  in  public  schools  on  declamation  days  are  limited  to  five 
minutes  each  for  the  delivery  of  "  pieces."  There  is  a  great  com- 
plaint of  the  scarcity  of  material  for  such  a  purpose,  while  the 
injudicious  pruning  of  eloquent  extracts  has  often  marred  the  de- 
sired effects  To  obv/  .te  these  difficL-iies,  these  boolis  have  been  pre- 
pared b'  a  competetc  teacher. 


1 


ELOCUTION  SIMPLIFIED 

With  an   Introduction  by   George  M.   Baker. 
Cloth,  50  Cents. 

"  The  Manual  is  divided  into  four  parts.  Part  First  describes  a 
series  of  gymnastics  to  give  strength  and  elasticity  to  the  muscles 
used  in  speaking.  Part  Second  is  a  system  of  vocal  exercises  for 
daily  practice.  Part  Third,  the  application  of  the  vocal  exercises 
to  the  reading  of  short  extracts,  showing  the  effect  when  thus  applied. 
Part  Fourth  is  a  chapter  giving  general  hints  on  elocution,  and  show- 
ing how  easily  defects  in  speech  may  be  cured. 

"  With  or  without  an  instructor,  this  Manual  is  just  what  the  student 
is  in  great  need  of,  and  he  can  supply  that  need  by  a  study  of  '  Elo- 
cution Simplified.' " —  The  Dartmouth,  Hanozier,  N.H. 

Sold  by  all  Booksellers,  or  sent  by  mail,  prepaid,  on  receipt 
of  price. 

LEE  ANO  SHEPARD.  Publishers Boston. 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


t   •^" 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


AA    000  352  409 


University  of  California,  Los  Angeles 


L  006  341   452  8 


/: 


_^.:  i  \  n  M  k  I   Q^ i' 


1A50 


